Bone remains of mammals from the Paleolithic site Ushbulak (North-Eastern Kazakhstan): archaeological context, mineralogical and geochemical properties and paleoecological reconstructions

Comprehensive mineralogical and geochemical studies of fossil bones of herbivorous mammals were carried out at the unique Paleolithic site Ushbulak (North-East Kazakhstan), dating from 45 to less than 10 thousand years ago. The geological conditions of the occurrence of fossil bones and the lithological and mineralogical properties of bone-bearing soils are described. The microstructure of bones, the composition of impurities illuviated in them, epigenetic minerals, the composition of microelements, the crystallochemical properties of bioapatite, thermal properties, and the elemental and amino acid composition of bone collagen were analyzed. Regularities of changes in the properties of fossil bones in the process of their fossilization are revealed. The isotopic composition of C, O in bioapatite, C, N in bone collagen was studied, and paleoclimatic and paleoecological reconstructions were carried out.