New data on iron production in Eastern Fennoscandia (second half of the I millennium bc - beginning of the I millennium ad)

The paper presents new data on iron production in Eastern Fennoscandia during the Early Iron Age, second half of the I millennium BC - beginning of the I millennium AD. Radiocarbon dating indicates that the mass production of raw iron in this region began no later than the IV - III centuries BC. Three main types of kilns were used: a stone box kiln, a pit kiln, and a kiln made of stones and clay. Kilns of the first and second types are the earliest, while the kilns of the third type began to be used towards the end of the Early Iron Age. Perhaps, they were structurally similar to medieval iron-making kilns. Kilns of the first and third types have traces of multiple uses. Iron production sites in Eastern Fennoscandia were often located outside the settlements, with many found on hills or near water reservoirs to take advantage of the wind to fan the flames. Ceramic nozzle tubes found at some sites suggest the use of artificial air supply in the second half of the I millennium BC for iron smelting or forging. The paper also suggests that flat-bottomed, bucket-shaped asbestos vessels may have been used to harden iron tools during the Early Iron Age. These vessels were made of refractory clay and asbestos fibers and could have been used as crucibles where iron objects were carbonized by heating to high temperatures in contact with charcoal. Finally, it is noted that in winter, iron forging was carried out in dwellings where the metal was heated in domestic hearths. In summer, large kilns made of vertically placed stone plates were used for this purpose, as evidenced by the Tomitsa site on the western shore of Onega Lake.