Banners, bunchuks and flags of the Golden Horde

The study and reconstruction of various types of military attributes (banners, horsetail bunchuks, flags, their features and forms) from the period of the Golden Horde (the Ulus of Jochi era) is currently one of the pertinent scientific problems. This topic has not previously been the subject of independent research in studies on the history of the Golden Horde. Therefore, the aim of this research was to reconstruct the existing system of military symbols from the Golden Horde period based on historical sources. The primary source for the study was iconographic materials. Monuments of visual art from the countries and peoples that were part of the Empire of Genghis Khan and his successors, as well as from countries that had cultural and military contact with the Ulus of Jochi, were utilized. Additional sources included information from written literature, as well as archaeological and material evidence. A detailed and in-depth analysis of the data from all these sources enabled the reconstruction of the complex military symbolism used during the Golden Horde era (Ulus of Jochi), and the identification of various types of banners, flags, and bunchuks of this period, which differed in the shape of the canvas and additional elements determining their status and specific purposes.