Economic transformation of coal mining single-industry towns in China and Russia: The experience of Pingxiang and Vorkuta

Sustainable Development Goal 11 is “Resilient Cities and Communities” according to the document “Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”. Some of the most problematic in terms of sustainability are single-industry towns. Although they have been a significant part of the national economy for many decades (about 40% of Russia’s GRP), due to the undiversified nature of their economy, many risks arise in relation to such cities (Uskova et al., 2012; Zubarevich, 2010; Kozhevnikov, 2019). Their different types are considered in the works of leading scientists in the field of spatial economics and urbanism. For instance, works of N.V. Zubarevich, N.Y. Zamyatina1, E.M. Buchwald, E.V. Manaeva (Zubarevich, 2010; Manaeva, 2018; Buchwald, Kol’chugina, 2019) study the economic problems of single-industry towns. The works of T.S. Lytkina, I.A. Sekushina disclose social risks of single-industry towns development (Lytkina, 2014; Sekushina, 2024).

A separate layer of works is devoted to various models of economic transformation of socioeconomic systems with specialization in industries of low technological modes, which are characteristic of single-industry towns. The analysis of works by both Russian and foreign researchers has shown that most of them identify three models: a) development based on traditional industries (neo-industrialization), b) development based on alternative new industries and types of economic activity, c) hybrid, combining the first two (Tatarkin, Romanova, 2013; Shirokova, 2015; Kaigorodtsev, 2022; Aleshina, 2024; Gallas, 2025; Gulzar et al., 2025).

Neo-industrialization can be carried out in two directions: first, improvement of current production through modernization based on the introduction of various technologies (e.g., digital technologies, artificial intelligence, etc.) to reduce losses, enhance energy and resource saving, and increase labor productivity; second, the creation of production interfacing with traditional production to lengthen value chains by increasing the number of redistribution. In the process of neoindustrialization, the main dominant structures are large corporations that concentrate significant amounts of capital and production (Tatarkin, Romanova, 2013; Shirokova, 2015). This model requires significant costs, so the main tools for its stimulation are various kinds of state programs to support investment in industry, to provide subsidies and loans for development, and in some cases nationalization of enterprises. A significant advantage of neo-industrialization is the preservation and increase of productive capacity (Kaigorodtsev, 2022; Aleshina, 2024).

The model of formation of fundamentally new industries is usually used when it is necessary to change the structure of the economy, if neoindustrialization has not led to the desired results. In this case, key industrial production facilities are either closed or operate with rather low results, but at the same time other types of activities, often not related to industry, are developed. This model is less costly, and the main instruments of transition to it are grants for the creation of nonindustrial business. Small business becomes the key subject. This model has worked well in some cities of Western Europe (Manchester, Bilbao, etc.) and negatively in the territories of developing countries (Gallas, 2025; Gulzar et al., 2025).

The problems concerning economic transformation are most typical for single-industry towns specializing in coal mining (e.g., Hanna, Bankhead, Aniox (Canada); Centralia (USA); Ordos and Pingxiang (China); Gukovo, Raichikhinsk, Inta, Vorkuta (Russia)), as a result of decreasing demand for coal in the world, including the desire to comply with the “green agenda” by switching to more environmentally friendly fuels and increasing the share of low-carbon energy sources in the energy balance of the territory (Kravchenko, 2022; Zhang et al. , 2023; Rudneva, 2024), abandoning coal combustion as the main source of carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere (Adekoya et al., 2023; Biddau et al., 2024). The development of other energy sources has led to a decrease in the economic efficiency of coal mining, which in turn has been followed by mine closures, displacement of labor force, which has caused a number of social and infrastructural problems (Knotter, 2015). The crisis affected the entire socio-economic system of the town because coal industry enterprises in such towns were town-forming enterprises. The social effects of mine closure were manifested in the high unemployment rate, reduction of social sphere, reduced access to social infrastructure, and growing social tension. Coal mining was carried out on a large scale, therefore, despite the huge reserves explored in due time, their quantity began to decrease and, in some cases, to be depleted, which further aggravates the already crisis situation in single-industry towns. Consequently, promising directions of transformation of their economy are needed.

The aim of this paper is to propose scientifically substantiated promising directions of transformation of the economy of single-industry towns specializing in coal mining.

To achieve the goal, we solve the following tasks: retrospective analysis of the development of singleindustry towns specializing in coal mining (case study of Pingxiang and Vorkuta); analysis of the current management of the development of such towns; taking into account the availability and location of productive forces, promising directions for the development of single-industry towns to diversify their economy are proposed.

Materials and methods

The objects of the study are the single-industry towns of Pingxiang (China) and Vorkuta (Russia); the subject is their socio-economic development taking into account economic specialization in coal mining. The choice of these towns is conditioned by the problems characteristic for them, which are expressed in the decline in the level of socio-economic development caused by the curtailment of coal mining: the depletion of coal reserves in Pingxiang has been observed since 2007, coal mining in Vorkuta will cease due to its unprofitability from 2037.

We analyzed the economy’s transformation of these towns in two stages:

• 1)    highlighting the historical patterns of socioeconomic development of the single-industry towns under consideration from the first half of the 20th century to 2023;

• 2)    analyzing the economic development of towns at the current development stage on the basis of indicators available in statistics.

The work used general scientific research methods such as analysis, induction, deduction, synthesis, graphic and tabular visualization methods, as well as cartographic methods.

The information base was the data of the United Nations, the Federal State Statistics Service of Russia and its territorial department in the Komi Republic, the non-commercial web-mapping project Open Street Map, the National Bureau of Statistics of China, the Bureau of Statistics of Jiangxi Province of China.

Retrospective analysis of socio-economic development of the single-industry towns of Pingxiang and Vorkuta

Pingxiang is a town formed more than 1,700 years ago, with an area of 3,831 km2 and a permanent population of about 2 million people; it is the westernmost town in Jiangxi Province and is located near the border of Jiangxi and Hunan provinces. In the past, with its large coal reserves, Pingxiang was one of the typical resource-oriented towns in China specializing in coal mining. There are three stages in its development: 1) coaldependent industrial development (1900–1958); 2) culmination of resource exploitation (1958– 2007); 3) forced transformation of the economy due to depletion of coal reserves (2007 – present time).

Coal-dependent industrial development (1900– 1958). This stage began with the construction of the largest Anyuan coal mine, and with it the first

Zhuzhou–Pingxiang railway. Later, in 1908, the joint-stock company Hanyeping Coal and Iron Works and Minus Co., Ltd. was founded in the town, which adopted Western methods of machine production, transportation, washing and coking of coal. After that, 1.1 million tons of coal were mined annually in Pingxiang, and more than 17,000 miners worked in its mines.

After the formation of the PRC during the first five-year plan (1953–1957), the state combined large and medium-sized mines to build one of China’s key state-owned enterprises, the Pingxiang Mining Bureau (now known as Pingxiang Mining Industry Group Co., Ltd.). Since then, eight more new large and medium-sized state-owned coal mines have been built in Pingxiang.

Culmination of resource exploitation (1958– 2007). Entering the period of the second five-year plan (1958–1962), Pingxiang emphasized the development of ferrous metallurgy and coal industry, but neglected traditional handicrafts and light industry, as a result of which the level of development of light industry significantly lagged behind that of heavy industry, and the industrial structure as a whole was undiversified. Basically, an industrial system was formed, including coal, machine-building, metallurgical and ceramic industries, and products such as steel, electric ceramics and industrial ceramics sold well at home and abroad. At the same time, not enough attention was paid to the light industry².

In the period from 1978 to 2008, Pingxiang’s annual GDP growth averaged 12.1%. Coal and steel production accounted for more than 40% and 30% of the total production in the province, respectively. The sales volume of chemical fillers in Pingxiang accounted for 70% of the total sales in the country, and the market share of Pingxiang electro-ceramics in China reached more than 60%. In 2001, the volume of float glass production in Pingxiang reached 555 weight boxes (eighth in China). Intercity buses produced in Anyuan have become the best-selling in the country.

At its peak, Pingxiang had more than 1,000 coal mines with an annual coal production volume of 6 million tons, which were supplied in large volumes for industrial and domestic needs to the eastern and central-southern regions of China, as well as for export. The coal industry has created more than 200,000 jobs in Pingxiang and has made a great contribution to the economic and social development of the city itself and China as a whole.

More than 20 large enterprises of heavy industry were built in such areas as ferrous metallurgy, cement production, mining engineering, diesel engine production, industrial ceramics, etc. Thus, an old industrial base was formed in Pingxiang, which accounted for 57.3% of the value of Pingxiang’s gross industrial and agricultural output and 74.8% of Pingxiang’s tax revenues.

Forced transformation caused by resource depletion (2007 – present time). After more than a century of coal mining, by the beginning of the 21st century, Pingxiang’s coal resources were on the verge of exhaustion. The remaining recoverable coal reserves here accounted for only 14% of the proven reserves in 2007. In such conditions, it was difficult to continue developing an industrial system focused on the production of coal, cement, ceramics, glass, and steel. Resource depletion, low mine efficiency in all areas, low added value of products, and an inefficient industrial structure (the share of the secondary sector in Pingxiang reached 61.1% in 2007) based on resource use have led to serious problems such as environmental pollution, lack of jobs, and unsustainable economic development.

In 2008, Pingxiang was included in the first list of Chinese towns with depleted resources as a city whose total recoverable reserves reached more than 70% of the initially estimated reserves, as well as a town that can only mine for five additional years based on existing technologies and production facilities (Li et al., 2021; Dou et al., 2023; Feng et al., 2024). Since then, local authorities have stepped up efforts to close outdated production facilities, as well as refurbish and close coal mines. Currently, only four state-owned coal mines in the town continue mining3 (Aleksandrova, 2023; Stavrov, 2022).

There are also three stages in the history of Vorkuta’s development: 1) the beginning of the development of the coal deposit and the accelerated construction of the city (1930–1962); 2) reaching maximum production capacity and standard of living (1963–1991); 3) the post–Soviet period (1992 – present time).

At the first stage (1930–1962), the coal deposit was developed , which began with the discovery of high-calorie coal in 1930 by geologist G.A. Chernov. A year later, their extraction was already started, and in 1932, the forced construction of a settlement, the construction of which involved the labor of prisoners. The urban district was originally a settlement of the Kapitalnaya mine (later Vorkutinskaya); the territory received town status only in November 1943. At that time, 7,000 people lived in the town (Astakhova, 2024; Cherepko, 2021).

Over the years, about 40 enterprises have been put into operation, including the cement plant, the Vorkutaugol combine, on the basis of which the Pechora branch of the All-Union Scientific Research Coal Institute, as well as processing plants and a lime plant, began operating. About 750,000 square meters of living space have been built, 192 cultural facilities have been built, a swimming pool and a television studio have appeared in the city. The territory has a communal and transport infrastructure. Back in 1958, only 3–4 bus routes operated in Vorkuta, but in 1959 there were 12 of them; 28 buses transported passengers along the ring route. In the same year, an IL-14 aircraft operated daily from Vorkuta airfield to Moscow, Leningrad, Norilsk and Syktyvkar4.

During the period of reaching maximum production capacity and standard of living (1963– 1991) , the town’s population continued to grow until 1991. Labor productivity also increased. In just one day (January 8, 1963), the miners of Vorkuta produced 1,572 tons of coal in excess of the plan. During the year, more coal was mined in Vorkuta than in Italy, Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Romania, Yugoslavia, Austria, Sweden, Norway combined⁵. The high pace of socioeconomic development of the city was evidenced by the number of purchased TV-sets: their number approached 60 thousand, i.e. almost every Vorkuta family watched town television programs. The town was provided with telephones three times better than the capital: in Moscow, there were telephones in every 50th apartment, in Vorkuta – in every 20th⁶. Since 1965, the Northern Lights express train has been running⁷.

In the 1970s, the Vorkutaugol Combine created a recreational social infrastructure for workers and their families in other regions. A recreation center for more than 2,000 people was organized in Gelendzhik. In addition, kindergartens, pioneer camps, and tourist bases were built both in the Komi Republic and in the resort regions of the USSR.

During this period, the economy was developing successfully, new housing was being built, and there was a significant influx of migrant workers for high earnings, including due to high “northern allowance”8. The town’s population was 100,210 people in 1979.

After the collapse of the USSR , negative development trends began manifesting themselves in Vorkuta. Coal prices were liberalized and the coal industry was privatized. The Government was no longer able to subsidize the activities of coal enterprises in 1993. The share of government subsidies in the salaries of Vorkutaugol employees decreased from 80% to 1.5%. In 1993–1999, miners went on strikes demanding higher wages, indexation of working capital, and an end to rising energy prices. A program has been adopted to close unpromising mines.

The Tsentralnaya, Yur-Shor, Promyshlennaya, Yuzhnaya, Yun-Yaga, and Halmer-Yu mines were closed along with the village of the same name, and the Oktyabrskaya mine was liquidated during this period. The social infrastructure began to collapse along with the closure of the mines. In the village of Promyshlenniy, there is a closed school No. 15, and subsequently the village itself, which had 15 thousand inhabitants back in 19779, was liquidated. In 2003, OAO Severstal-Resurs bought a federal stake in OAO Vorkutaugol10, and the task of the new owner was to make this organization profitable, as well as to pay the Vorkuta miners the wage debt. In 2009, a draft general plan of the

Vorkuta Municipality was developed, implying the preservation of only the villages of Severny, Vorgashor, Seydu, Yeletsky, and Sivaya Mask within its borders.

Currently, some of the settlements in the town district have been transformed into Vorkuta microdistricts, but this has not prevented their depopulation. For example, the Sovetsky microdistrict (formerly an urban-type settlement with more than 2 thousand inhabitants), located next to the Yunyaginsky section, was completely resettled and disconnected from communications in 2021.

The availability of coal reserves in Vorkuta also played a role, but the key factor was not their depletion, but the unprofitability of mining. An analysis of the data on coal reserves shows that the explored balance reserves of coal at the current production level will last for almost 200 more years ( Tab. 1 ), but one of the significant problems is the high level of coal losses during mining, which significantly reduces the service life of existing mines.

For the same reason, the termination of the town-forming enterprise AO “Vorkutaugol” in 2037 is seen as a significant threat to the development of Vorkuta11. A decrease in the possibility of profitable coal mining will be accompanied by a reduction in jobs, and at the same time an increase in the already large outflow of residents (Andrukhova, 2024).

Analysis of economic development of singleindustry towns specializing in coal mining at the current stage of development

In Pingxiang’s case, the implementation of the 10210 Action Plan for the Modernization of Key industrial chains in the manufacturing industry remains important (i.e., it is planned to achieve the following goals by 2026: comprehensively modernize 10 industrial chains, such as metal materials and resources processing, equipment manufacturing, energy conservation and environmental protection, electronic information, new energy, fireworks, construction materials, food, clothing and household items, medicine; to create two efficient and competitive production clusters in the sectors of materials processing and equipment production; to achieve an annual increase in the size of clusters by an average of 10%). To date, six industrial parks have been built in Pingxiang (one in each county), which in 2023 generated revenue of 92.195 billion yuan and profit of 4.284 billion yuan.

The share of the secondary sector is gradually increasing in the city’s economy, but despite this, the primary sector still dominates it ( Fig. 1 ). In our opinion, it is advisable to develop Pingxiang within the framework of a hybrid transformation model, that is, taking into account both existing industries and the prerequisites for creating new ones.

Table 1. Balance reserves of coal in Vorkuta, million tons

Deposit	2011	2015	2020	2021	2022	2023	2023 to 2010, %
Vorgashorskoye	1600.0	1530.0	1505.2	1501.1	1493.3	1589.4	99.3
Usinskoe	1460.0	1430.0	1431.6	1431.5	1431.5	1431.5	98.0
Vorkutskoye	920.0	900.0	752.5	748.9	744.7	740.9	80.5
Total	3980.0	3860.0	3689.3	3681.5	3669.5	3761.8	94.5
Mining, total	7.2	9.7	6.7	5.5	6.1	6.1	85.6
Losses, %	-	-	46.7	30.5	50.6	44.6	-
Source: Reports on the state and protection of the Komi Republic’s environment in 2011, 2015, 2020, 2021–2023.

11 Vorkutaugol will stop producing thermal coal. BNK News Agency. Available at: (accessed: 16.02.2025).

Figure 1. Share of value added in the three sectors of the economy in Pingxiang’s GRP in 2019–2023, %

Primary sector           Secondary sector        Tertiary sector

Note: The primary sector includes agriculture and forestry, extractive industries, secondary – industry, energy, construction, tertiary – services, financial and insurance services, public administration, science and education.

Source: Statistical Communiqu e of Jiangxi Province on the 2023 National Economic and Social Development. Jiangxi Provincial Bureau of Statistics.

In general, if we consider some indicators of economic development, we can see that in 2023, there was a sharp decrease in the volume of investments in fixed assets in the town, while it is most typical for the primary and secondary sectors (the rate of decline in investment was 56.8 and 29.7 percentage points, respectively; Tab. 2 ).

A more negative trend is typical for Pingxiang’s budget revenues, which decreased by 23.3% in 2017–2023. Nevertheless, positive trends can also be noticed, such as an increase in household disposable income by almost one and a half times, as well as an increase in retail trade turnover by almost 86 percentage points.

While the results of economic transformation measures are already visible in Pingxiang, they have yet to manifest themselves in Vorkuta. The results of the analysis of the development tools of this territory have shown that their main forms are municipal programs, subsidies, grants, and financing is provided from the federal, regional, and local budgets, as well as with the support of the NPO “Fund for the Development of SingleIndustry Towns”. The town district receives the

Table 2. Economic development indicators of Pingxiang town

Indicator 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022. 2023 2023 to 2017, % Retail trade turnover, billion yuan 26.2 29.0 32.3 34.7 41.6 44.7 48.7 185.9 Growth rate of investments in fixed assets, percentage points compared to the previous year 12.8 10.5 9.7 8 10.9 7.8 -7.5 - Disposable income per capita, yuan 33120.0 35763.0 38502.0 40405.0 43395.0 45278.0 46928.0 141.7 Budget revenues, billion yuan 14.6 16.1 17.2 10.6 10.8 10.7 11.2 76.7 According to: Pingxiang Town Statistical Report on National economic and social development in 2023. Available at: (accessed: 10.05.2025); Pingxiang Town Statistical Report on National Economic and Social Development in 2020. Available at: (accessed: 10.05.2025).

most extensive assistance from federal authorities as a single-industry town: Vorkuta is included in the list of single-industry towns and is classified as a single-industry town12 with a stable socio-economic situation. The following development support measures are provided for such towns13:

– creation of territories of advanced socioeconomic development (PSEDA – Priority Social and Economic Development Area / PDA – Priority Development Area); despite the intention expressed in 2017, work on the formation of PSEDA has not been completed at present;

– financial support for small and medium enterprises (SMEs) within the framework of municipal programs; the administration of Vorkuta, within the framework of the municipal program “Economic Development” for 2024, provides financial support for small and medium businesses in the town in the form of grants14;

– support for investment projects implemented on the territory of the Russian Federation on the basis of project financing; the municipal program “Economic Development” provides for measures to provide organizational and advisory assistance to subjects of investment activity15;

– support for socially oriented non-profit organizations (SONPO); in 2021, Vorkuta was allocated a subsidy for further distribution among SONPO on a competitive basis16.

Some financial and organizational support is provided by the NPO “Fund for the Development of Single-Industry Towns”; in particular, it cofinances the expenses of municipalities to carry out measures for the construction and (or) reconstruction of infrastructure facilities necessary for the implementation of new investment projects in single-industry towns. The Fund for the Development of Single-Industry Towns allocated 104 million rubles in 2017. These funds were used to improve 10 yards and reconstruct the Alley of Pioneers and the town park17.

The Ministry of Industry and Trade of the Russian Federation provides subsidies to Russian organizations in various sectors of the economy to reimburse part of the cost of paying interest on loans, implementing innovative projects, purchasing transport for urban facilities, etc. Subsidies are also provided for leasing and credit organizations.

In general, the Vorkuta town Administration implements 11 municipal programs aimed at developing the economy and social sphere18. For instance, the purpose of the Economic Development program is to create conditions for the growth of investment activity and promote the development of small and medium businesses. The main focus is on co-financing projects of the population within the framework of the National Budget project.

Due to the actualization of spatial development issues in recent years, a master plan has been developed for Vorkuta, which is a document of strategic spatial planning of the city, covering various aspects of development19.

The current management tools have led to certain results ( Tab. 3 ). For instance, despite the unfavorable trends in industry and the social sphere, the volume of shipped products in the urban district has been growing in recent years, as has the retail trade turnover. There are also positive trends in the level of average monthly wages, which increased by 62.9 percentage points during the period under review, and in the level of local budget revenues (an increase of 43.9 percentage points in 2023 compared to 2017).

At the same time, we should say that investment activity in Vorkuta has been curtailed:

for most of the years of the period under review, there has been a significant reduction in the volume of investments in fixed assets, which is largely due to the gradual reduction of coal mining in this territory.

Social problems are becoming even more acute. The population of Vorkuta decreased by 12.7% during the period under review due to both natural decline and migration outflow, despite the fact that wages in Vorkuta in 2023 were 1.3 times higher than the national average (74.9 thousand rubles) and 4.5 times higher than the regional subsistence level (22.7 thousand rubles). However, the unfavorable economic situation is evidenced by a decrease in the number of business entities, including profitable ones, and an increase in the number of unprofitable organizations.

Table 3. Indicators of the development of Urban district Vorkuta

Indicator 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2023 to 2017, % (p. p.) Retail trade turnover, million rubles 1346.0 2966.4 4287.7 5222.2 6324.5 7479.1 9108.4 In 6.7 times Local budget revenues, million rubles 3434.6 3976.7 3992.6 4156.1 4692.0 5077.2 4941.3 143.9 Average monthly salary of employees of organizations, thousand rubles 62.2 69.5 74.5 80.7 82.7 93.9 101.3 162.9 Goods of own production were shipped, works and services were performed on our own, billion rubles 42.3 43.9 50 43.6 59.4 70.9 57.5 135.9 Growth rate of investments in fixed assets, percentage points compared to the previous year -83.5 63.6 -17.5 27.5 -5.9 1.6 -22.4 26.8 Number of business entities, units No data No data 522 528 510 495 469 89.8 Number of unprofitable organizations, units No data No data 105 130 138 124 146 139.0 Number of profitable organizations, units No data No data 417 398 372 371 323 77.5 Average monthly salary of employees of organizations, thousand rubles 62.2 69.5 74.5 80.7 82.7 93.9 101.3 162.9 Natural increase (decrease), people 107 52 -84 -179 -328 -218 -154 -143.9 Migration increase (decrease), people -2854 -2610 -1549 -515 -816 -204 -1 0.0 According to: Database of municipal indicators. Available at: (accessed: 15.02.2025).

19 Vorkuta Master Plan. Available at: (accessed: 10.02.2025).

In addition to social issues, environmental issues are no less relevant in Vorkuta. For example, it got into the top 10 cities with the most polluted air in 202320. There is also a deterioration in the quality of tap water caused by floods, which indicates the problem of pollution of natural water bodies21.

Prospects for the transformation of the economy of single-industry towns specializing in coal mining

A special place in the framework of the transformation of the economy of the singleindustry town of Pingxiang should be given to crossborder cooperation, in particular, the interaction of the neighboring provinces of Jiangxi and Hunan. This is facilitated by the good transport connectivity of the territories: a 140-kilometer high-speed train ride from Pingxiang to Changsha City takes only 30 minutes. Pingxiang is currently developing cooperation between the western part of Jiangxi Province and the Changsha–Zhuzhou–Xiangtan urban cluster in Hunan Province, as well as building the Hunan–Jiangxi cross-border cooperation center. There are prerequisites for the creation of storage and logistics bases in this territory, as well as bases for processing agricultural products along the Hunan-Jiangxi border ( Fig. 2 ).

Taking into account that food security is one of their key priorities for China, the Pingxiang City authorities are making efforts to improve the mechanism by which managers at the city, county, township and village levels control grain accounting and crop cultivation. Currently, the town has six leading national agricultural industrialization companies and 24 large food industry enterprises (industrial enterprises with annual core business revenue of at least 20 million yuan). To the greatest extent, agricultural land occupies the territories of

Lianhua and Luxi counties. In our opinion, the knowledge of the local population working on this land can allow not only increasing the collection of agricultural products, but also developing breeding areas, in particular, growing species resistant to certain factors, which is very important in the context of climate change. It will also contribute to the achievement of one of Pingxiang’s strategic goals – to become a leader in the seed industry and the industrialization of agriculture.

As in any city with a long history of development, Pingxiang has a number of prerequisites for the development of tourism. For instance, it makes sense to develop rural and ecological tourism in Luxi and Lianhua counties, which is facilitated by large areas of farmland, as well as mountains with elements of tourist infrastructure. In other counties, in addition to cultural tourism, it is possible to organize industrial tourism, especially in Shangli county, where the production of fireworks is developed, as well as Xiangdong county, where a number of enterprises producing various kinds of ceramics are located. In general, the town is actively using its rich tourist resources: more than 60 million domestic tourist trips were made here in 2023, which generated tourism revenue of 65.656 billion yuan, while record high income and number of tourists were recorded in the Wugong Mountains.

In our opinion, in the counties where industrial enterprises are most concentrated and, accordingly, there is an increased level of negative impact on the environment (Xiangdong, Shanlgi, Anyuan), the development of activities for working out and implementing green infrastructure elements is promising. This will reduce environmental damage, involve by-products of pyrotechnic and ceramic industries, and create an environmental barrier on the border with Hunan Province. In addition, Hanyuan county already has experience in transforming the economy toward a more environmentally friendly option. For example,

Figure 2. Promising types of economic activity in the single-industry town of Pingxiang

According to: Open Street Map service data.

Symbols

□ Pingxiang town territory with county borders Border between Jiangxi and Hunan provinces

Border of municipalities

Railway

Highways

Water bodies

Promising types of Pinxiang town activities

Tourism

Design and construction of green infrastructure facilities

Logistics and provision of storage facilities

Production of industrial equipment

Forestry and agriculture, breeding

Production of industrial ceramics

Software development for industrial equipment

Production of building materials

Cooperative industrial parks

38 large and small coal mines were once located in the village of Lyexia, and more than half of the village’s 2,000 residents were employed in coal mining jobs. Many villagers were laid off as the coal mines closed one after another in 2003. In 2016, due to its location near the town, the presence of picturesque mountains and clear reservoirs, the village began gradually carrying out environmental rehabilitation of coal mining sites, following the idea of “restoration, protection and reorganization”. At the same time, the village coordinated its resources to create the tourist attraction Sunshine Flower Sea, which is visited by over 200,000 people annually. A similar practice was implemented in the village of Wushi in the same county, which was once known as the “dark village” due to severe environmental pollution and high energy consumption caused by the functioning of its main industries (cement and coal) in the past. To improve the living conditions of the villagers and achieve a “green” transformation of development, land restoration work was actively carried out in Qingshan village, and about 66.67 hectares of land were allocated for the development of traditional agriculture. The Wuschi Yinxiang Rural Complex has been built, which houses a 20-hectare fruit farm and a 4-hectare grape farm, and the annual number of free-range chickens for slaughter has reached more than 20,000 units22.

In Xiangdong and Luxi counties, there are prerequisites (an industrial ceramics factory in Xiangdong and coal mining dumps in Luxi) for the creation of a production facility for the production of building materials with a new composition and consumer properties. In our opinion, Shanlgi and Anyuan counties have more prerequisites for the production of industrial equipment, which is facilitated by the industrial parks located on their territories that produce elements for electronic equipment.

It is worth noting that Pingxiang already has a successful experience of partial modernization of the economy. For example, in Shanlgi county, known as the “Birthplace of Fireworks” due to the 1,400-year history of their production, the gross sales volume of fireworks produced here accounts for 28% of the total volume in China.

At the same time, for a long time such production was carried out manually, which created great risks for safety and the environment. In 2017, an explosion occurred at one of these facilities, which killed 7 people23. As a result of the closure of 342 backward fireworks manufacturing enterprises in Shangli, the county authorities began stimulating the mechanization and automation of all processes related to the production of fireworks. Currently, there are 174 fireworks manufacturers in the county, and the number of employees engaged in sales and management in this field is 60,000 people24.

In the case of Vorkuta, in our opinion, the key direction of development within the framework of

Figure 3. Promising types of economic activity in the single-industry town of Vorkuta

Vorgashorskaya Mine

Symbols

Settlements

Depopulated settlements

Water bodies

Mines

Rock dumps

Highways

Railways

Promising types of economic activity

Tourism

Research and development

Synthesis of diamonds

Extraction of useful elements and substances from landfills

Production of new products from coal

Creative industries

Production of industrial equipment

Komsomolsky Komsomolskaya Mine

Severny

Vorkuta

Yunyaginsky

Coal Mine

Muldai

According to: Open Street Map service data.

Vorgashor

Zapolyarny

Vorkutinskaya Mine

Zapolyarnaya mine 27

the hybrid model of economic transformation should be its diversification based on available resources. Of particular importance is the development of the town in conjunction with the surrounding settlements: Vorgashor, Severny, Komsomolsky, Zapolyarny ²⁵. Given the presence of water bodies, highways, and railways in this area, as well as mines, overburden dumps, and “ghost” settlements, in our opinion, the most promising activities are those outlined in Figure 3 .

The most diversified set of promising types of economic activity is expected directly for Vorkuta. First, it is the development of the research and development sector through cooperation between the research department of AO Vorkutaugol and the Vorkuta branch of Ukhta State Technical University in cooperation with researchers from other universities and scientific organizations. In addition, it is planned to create a data center for data processing in the town, which may also become an important component of this area26. The sector’s activities should be aimed primarily at developing solutions to local problems (providing infrastructure, primarily transport, reducing environmental pollution, reducing coal losses during mining and transportation, eliminating a large number of overburden dumps, creating jobs, developing technologies that increase the safety of coal mining, etc.), which can be adapted or applied in other territories with similar problems.

Vorkuta’s carbon resources are also a prerequisite for the creation of enterprises for the synthesis of artificial diamonds, which can later be used in jewelry, optics, electronics, as well as in mining to improve cutting and abrasive tools. In terms of physical properties, they are identical to natural ones, and their cost is 70–80% less, besides they are more environmentally friendly, since they do not require the development of entire deposits and the seizure of land27. The raw materials for such production can be coal dust and methane produced during coal mining. Production can be organized both on the basis of the HPHT method28, which is more expensive in terms of costs, but allows for the production of larger diamonds, and the CDV method29.

Given the presence in Vorkuta of the research department of AO Vorkutaugol and the Pechorskaya processing plant (part of AO Vorkutaugol) in Zapolyarny urban-type settlement, in our opinion, it is advisable to diversify the product line with coal fertilizers, adsorbents (for example, activated carbon), as well as to organize the production of industrial equipment that increases the safety of coal mining (for example, equipment for pumping methane from mines), and its improvement.

Due to the proximity of overburden dumps and water bodies, one of the promising activities for the Severny settlement is the extraction of useful elements from coal mining waste: coal from landfills, extraction of iron, aluminum, lime, and the production of sinter from a charge.

Taking into account the significant methane abundance of the Vorgashorskaya mine, which is extremely high in terms of hazard (in 2013, its relative methane abundance was estimated at 17.4 m3/t, while mines with a methane abundance of up to 5 m3/t are considered the least dangerous) (Zaburdyaev, 2013), it seems important to ensure methane capture. This is advisable both from the point of view of ensuring safety and further use of methane, for example, in the production of synthetic diamonds.

Vorkuta, as well as the urban-type settlements of Vorgashor and Severny, have certain prerequisites for tourism development, in particular industrial and quest tourism. This is due to the regular transport links between these urban-type settlements and Vorkuta, as well as the proximity of “ghost” settlements that attract stalker tourists. To avoid accidents with such tourists, as well as to reduce the level of looting, it is advisable to make visits to such places organized. In this regard, it is necessary to ensure the construction of hotels and tourist infrastructure in these settlements.

In addition, it makes sense to develop creative industries in Komsomolskaya and Vorgashore, which will not only improve the quality of local labor potential, but can also become a source of attraction for event tourism participants.

Conclusion

Thus, the research results showed that it is advisable to ensure the transformation of the economy of single-industry towns specializing in coal mining on the basis of a hybrid model that will preserve the accumulated potential, as well as diversify risks through the development of new types of activities for the territories under consideration, which will increase the sustainability of such settlements.

A retrospective review of the development of both the town of Pingxiang and the Vorkuta urban district indicates that their economies are focused on exploiting the only exhaustible type of resource, which initially allows for high economic growth and a standard of living, but after a certain time poses threats to the socio-economic development of the territories in the form of reduced returns, reduced jobs and population. deterioration of the environmental situation. Therefore, the task of transforming the economy of single-industry towns in order to mitigate such risks is extremely important. Its solution can be carried out both on the basis of a town-forming enterprise due to its availability of material, personnel and organizational capabilities, as well as the creation and implementation of other various sectors of the national economy (a hybrid model of transformation).

Pingxiang’s experience proved that some territories can receive a boost in the modernization of traditional activities (Shangli County in the north of Pingxiang, specializing in the manufacture of fireworks), while others require new activities, such as tourism and traditional farming (Anyuan County). At the same time, it is worth noting that counties that haveno industrial base in the present or in the past have fewer opportunities for economic transformation (Luxi and Lianhua counties). On the other hand, the practice of Vorkuta’s development also shows the importance not only of controlling existing mineral reserves, but also of making sound policy decisions, in particular, conducting social and industrial policies, since the work of townforming enterprises and, consequently, the level of town’s development may depend on them.

The scientific novelty of the work consists in substantiating the strategic priorities of the development of single-industry towns on the basis of capitalizing on their competitive advantages, consolidating the potentials of towns and adjacent territories. In the long term, this will make it possible to diversify the economy of such towns, thereby increasing their resilience to the challenges of various nature, as well as solving problems such as a decrease in investment activity, a decrease in population, and a high level of environmental damage. The practical significance lies in the possibility of using the results of regional state authorities and local governments in the development of tools for the economic development of single-industry towns with urban coal mining enterprises.