Key concepts for studying the migration issues in the Circumpolar region: mobility, stratification and globalization approaches

Social science has not developed a common understanding of the migration phenomenon1. In general terms, the migration is understood as the process of moving from one place to another for a permanent or long-term residence. This approach could be traced both in Russian and foreign scientific literature2. Russian traditional approach is represented by T. I. Zaslavskaya [1], V.I. Perevedentsev [2], L.L. Rybakovskiy [3], V.I. Mukomel [4], G.S. Vitkovskaya [5] and others. They identified and classified the problems of migration, measured its dynamics, presented the explication of the migration phases, tried to predict the migration flows both in Russia and abroad. However, in our view, the key issues of migration still remain unstudied in Russian science. This article, based on foreign migration research, provides an overview of recent theoretical and methodological approaches used to study this phenomenon.

Migration is a complex phenomenon; it is studied in economics, political science, history, demography, sociology, etc. Each disciplinary area focuses on different aspects of migration. Economists study reasons for migration [6] and explain it, for example, through the income differences between urban and rural population of different social strata [7]. Political scientists study migration in international perspective, focusing on the context of migration flows and local tax systems [8], the geopolitical causes of labor migration, characteristics of the diasporas’ formation [9]. Historians focus on causal processes that led to migration, in the continuum of time [10]. Demographers study the age and sex composition of migrants, how migration flows affect the demographic situation of the country/region [11]. Sociological research is aimed to describe the factors influencing intra-regional [12] and regional [13] migration dynamics. It also examines the basic adaptive problems of migrants and their solutions [14].

Migration is a controversial process. On the one hand, areas that have become the centers of migratory flows are characterized by an increase of the labour force and economically active population, changing its demographic situation. On the other hand, social tensions are growing, crime situation is getting worse and the competition in the labour market is increasing. In this regard, the immigration issue requires a comprehensive study based on recent theoretical achievements including mobility, social and geopolitical approaches. Familiarity with their heuristic potential allows studying the problems of migration from other perspectives and deepening the understanding of the analyzed phenomenon. It is to be noted, that approaches presented below overlap each other. So, the demarcation line between them is very conditional. However, this line seems to be important because it provides the opportunity to present the logic that gives those approaches a certain value of coherence and consistency.

Theoretical arguments are supported by statistical data on migration in the Circumpolar North. Migration flows there have their socio-economic, cultural and political specialty, due to the historical development of the Northern territories. The migration activity in the Arctic region is very mixed. On the one hand, it happens because of the hard climate conditions. The population is actively emigrating. On the other hand, the economic potential of the Circumpolar region is actively stimulating the flow of migrants.

Mobility approach

The concept of mobility first appeared in the works of P. A. Sorokin [15]. Social mobility was understood as the change of position of the individual in a society by him. His theoretical construction has two major aspects: horizontal mobility (it does not involve any significant changes of status while changing positions inside the social structures) and vertical mobility (means significant change of status). Vertical social mobility is in direct correlation with the level of democratization of society. Sorokin identified several general patterns of vertical mobility. First, every society has social mobility, no matter how closed the society is; every state has a place for revolution, upheaval or sudden change of powers. Secondly, there is no society without resistance while individuals change stratums. Every upward of social mobility implies the overcoming of obstacles and circumstances. Analyzing the history of mankind, P. A. Sorokin noted that in different periods the level and rate of social mobility had been dependent on external and internal circumstances including economic and political situation in the country, the type of migration groups and etc. Every society is a hierarchical system with different flow velocity of social mobility. Migration is a movement not only in the coordinates of the physical space, but also in the coordinates of the social system. Labour migrants, students, academic workers often migrate from one region to another in order to change their social status, get better education or career perspectives and etc.

With all the significance of P. Sorokin’s theoretical constructions, some aspects of migration had no consideration in his works. So, the focus of his analysis shifted towards the vertical mobility and par excellence he did not consider the horizontal mobility. Another disadvantage is the conceptualization of mobility in terms of social structure that made the temporal dimension of migration invisible. This was brought to the attention of modern researchers who offered their own theoretical and empirical solutions.

First of all, they refocused from the vertical to horizontal mobility and a new theoretical program emerged. The mobility approach, or, as it is often called by social scientists the “mobile turn”, was linked to the study of the movement of people, ideas and material objects, and the consequences of these movements. According to Tim Cresswell, mobility paradigm involves new ways of theorizing the process of mobility under the influence of power structures, patterns of social identity and geographical features [16]. The development of the mobility approach was primarily associated with studies made at the University of Lancaster3. It is possible to talk about a separate scientific school aimed to study the movement of people, capital, information, and material objects that form a single socio-economic model of life at the global, national and local levels. Lancaster Centre for Mobility Research is headed by one of the most cited social scientists of our time John Urry. His major idea is to update the understanding of the concept "social" [17, p.

• 111] . Urry believes that society should not be in the focus of sociological research because it is experiencing the undergoing fundamental change and therefore puts sociology at risk. The sociologists should focus on different kinds of mobility.

John Urry’s ideas were developed by Australian researchers Martin Bell and Gary Ward, who compared the temporary mobility and the permanent migration under the projects done at the University of Lancaster [18]. The temporary mobility and the permanent migration are usually studied separately. However, as the authors argued, the time constant movement and migration were the parts of the same space-time continuum of population mobility. Mobility looks like the combination of all kinds of territorial movements, including migration. Mobility is always limited in space and time. The temporary mobility is understood as a non-permanent and short-formed territorial movement, without change of residence. Compared to migratory movements, the temporary mobility has a certain number of distinctive features. First, while the migration involves moving to a new place of residence, the mobility means a regular change of the place of residence excluding the fact of non-residence4. In addition, the frequency of such movements and their frequency may vary greatly. The authors conducted an empirical analysis of mobility types depending on their duration and spoke about the following types: 24 hours — visits, tours, health care activities; 1-4 weeks — a business trip, long distance travel, study; and most long-term mobility — up to one year — a seasonal job or labour mobility [18, p. 4].

The approach of Australian scientists is different from P. Sorokin’s one. He considers the mobility as a moving within the status-role structure of the society. M. Bell and G. Ward analyzed the mobility issue in a broader framework. They explicit mobility, as the temporary movement from one place to another, and then as the turn back. The practical significance of their approach is that such a comparison not only reveals the functional connectivity of the moving groups of people in general perspective, but also facilitates the development of analysis methods of migration. The mobility approach is applied to the analysis of statistical data on migratory movements in such countries of the Circumpolar region, as Norway, Russia and Canada.

The mobility approach is possible to be expressed in such indicators as the level of immigration and emigration, the moving direction. In Norway in 2013 the total number of immigrants was 75,800 people and 2,780 people less than in the previous year. As for emigration, Norway was left by 35,700 people. In 2013 the net migration5 was lower than in the previous three

years. In 2012, immigrants were represented in all Norwegian municipalities6. Cities and municipalities with the highest rates of immigrants are: Oslo (30.4%), Drammen (25%), Lørenskog (23%) and Skien (19.6%) [22]. According to the data, the most attractive is the capital of Norway. According to experts, Oslo has become the fastest growing city in Europe7. In recent years, immigration has become a larger part of the growth of the population in Norway.

Considering migration flows Canada, we noted that in 2013 the country had 619,258 immigrants, 725 people more than in the previous year. In the past five years this number has been growing steadily. Assessing the level of emigration from Canada, we noted that in comparison to the other states in 2010, the net migration rate was 7.2% per 1,000 people, It was significantly higher than in other industrialized countries such as the United States (2.9), Russia (1.8) and France (1.2)8.

In 20109, the level of internal migration in Russia increased by 1.9% in comparison with the same period of the previous year. However, the overall migration growth in Russia decreased by 5,800 people (10%). It was directly related to the decrease of the number of immigrants registered by the place of residents10. Moscow and the Moscow area are the most attractive places for migration. They are followed by St. Petersburg and Krasnodar area. In Russia the level of emigration is higher than the level of migration. According to the Russian Federal Migration Service, the immigration rates are between 33,000 and 47,000 people a year11. According to the “Levada-center”, 22% of residents of Russia want to emigrate12. Speaking of the analysis of local migration flows in the North of Russia, it should be admitted that the highest level of migration growth is observed in St. Petersburg (74.1 per 1000), the lowest rates are in the Arkhangelsk region (-10.2 per 1000) and Komi Republic (-10.8 per 1000)13.

We have just reviewed the ways of statistic data interpretation through the prism of the mobility approach. This has allowed us to identify the common patterns of the migration process, to track the level and velocity of the social mobility linked to particular examples. The level of emigration to Norway and Canada has been growing steadily, in Russia this indicator is characterized by a gradual decrease. Speaking about the most attractive places for immigrants, it is important to note that in Norway, Canada Russia immigrants are searching for the opportunities to ”conquer the capital”.

Mobility has become the urgent issue for research among the contemporary social scientists. The proposed review shows that the phenomena of mobility and stratification are inextricably linked. Both phenomena are the dynamic characteristics of the society. In such a case, it is necessary to refer to the migration issues from the standpoint of social structure.

Stratification approach

Stratification approach means the division of people into groups depending on their socioeconomic status. Chris Barker has defined the stratification of society as a relational system of inequalities with economic, social, political and ideological factors [19]. Stratification approach is relevant to the research done by the Copenhagen Center of Social research14. Its work is focused on the study of the social stratification, socio-economic mobility, social differentiation and etc. In this regard, we should also mention the Center for Social Stratification and Inequality Studies of the Tohoku University, Japan15. This Center is carrying out the projects aimed to study the degrees and kinds of inequality and the mechanisms that lead to disparities of the social order. Both Centers mentioned above are carrying out the research projects largely linked to the theoretical foundations established by P. A. Sorokin’s functional analysis.

Sorokin defined the social stratification as the division of the people into classes and groups in a strict hierarchy, based on unequal access to social and material goods [20, p. 23]. The author distinguished between three main forms of social stratification: economic, political and professional. Economic stratification is characterized by unequal access to economic benefits. The gap between the richest and the poorest has a cyclic dynamics, in which “economic disparity is replaced by its weakening” [20, p. 311]. Political stratification increases with the growth of population and the increasing complexity of social structure. In other words, the bigger is the population the clearer is the division into stratums. Finally, under professional stratification16 P. A. Sorokin understood the unequal distribution of the professional prestige in a society.

Social stratification and migration are two variables closely related to each other. For example, economic stratification can be a catalyst for migration. If the gap between the richest and the poorest becomes large, the resource-poor are sent to other regions in order to “search for a better life”. According to another point of view, the intensity of migratory movements is determined by the concentration of the economically-active population in areas attractive for migrants. As a result, these areas face the problem of surplus labor accompanied by the reduction of the average monthly salary. In the case of political stratification, migration can reduce political tensions and the level of disagreement with the actions of the ruling elite in the region, which might be the reason for migration outflow. So, we are able to conclude that studying the migration it is necessary to take into account the stratification hierarchy of the society, because it is not only the factor of migration, but it is also its result.

Scandinavian countries, especially Norway, are the most subjected to migration today. Both external migration (migration to Norway) [21] and internal migration (e.g. from rural to urban areas) are observed there [22]. The analysis of migration in Scandinavia was made by the Center for rural studies at the University of Science and Technology in Trondheim17. Recently published report “Social stratification and change in the division of labor in rural areas of Norway” marked a change in the labour market of Scandinavian countries, which led to the opening of educational opportunities for actual and potential migrants18. In recent years there has been a decline in agriculture of Norway therefore the number of jobs in the agricultural sector has reduced. The majority of those who was born in the countryside spend a part of their lives in cities, guided by the educational and professional considerations. In addition, salaries in rural areas are significantly lower than in urban areas due to the peculiarities of the market for rural products, and the labour market specifics where a significant percentage of the workforce has a lower level of education compare to the workers in urban areas. All these factors influence people’s decision to move from the countryside to the city.

However, the lack of high quality education in rural areas does not mean that the rural migrants occupy the lowest positions in the structure of the urban community. Collected data indicates the same level of adaptation among the rural migrants as among the other categories of migrants. So, they are able to occupy the same well paid job positions as the regular citizens.

As it was mentioned earlier, the stratification approach focuses on dividing the population into groups depending on their socio-economic status. Rural and urban origin of a man can be one

of the reasons that influence his position in the social structure. So, now it is time to turn to statics on migration flows between rural and urban areas.

In recent decades Norway, being one of the most advanced capitalist countries, is experiencing the growth of rural migrants’ concentration in the more industrialized urban areas. Internal migration is quite high. The rate of migration between municipalities has increased up to 235,000 in 2013. It is the highest registered rate in the history of migration. According to World Bank’s data, in 2009—2013 the population of the rural areas had decreased by 3,027 people because of the migration flows. It is serious number for such a small country as Norway. As for Russia and Canada, there is an opposite situation: the rate of rural population has increased due to migration processes up to 119,340 and 43,321 respectively19.

Distinctive features of migration between rural and urban areas in Russia have changed in recent decades. Russia is experiencing numerous seasonal migrations from the cities to rural areas. It is especially visible in the cities with the high level of unemployment. However, we can say that the structure of distribution of population between rural and urban areas is the same in all the regions of Northwest Russia. In Murmansk oblast the share of rural population is very small — 8.3% of the total population. In other areas of the European North of Russia the share of rural population ranges from 21% to 34%20.

In Canada the situation with the distribution of urban and rural workers is as it follows: over the past 50 years the number of urban population has increased and the number of rural population has reduced. In 1956 in urban areas had 67% of the population (33% of population lived in rural areas), but today it is 81%. Analyzing the migration flows in Canada, it is important to note the specialty of distribution of immigrants in rural and urban areas. According to statistics, in Canada 75% of immigrants prefer to live in large urban areas such as Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver and less than 3% of immigrants chose to settle down in small towns and rural areas21.

The data shows that the immigrants prefer capital areas more than rural ones. It happens because of the set of ideas, according to which urban environment provides more opportunities for going up the social structure. Analysis of the rural-urban migration flows have enabled us to trace the mechanisms that lead to disparities in the organization of population in certain areas.

We have reviewed the key features of social stratification in the context of migration. Generally speaking, social stratification can be defined as the categorization of people along the axis of socio-economic status, with such indicators as income, education, prestige, power. The dominant reason for migration is the human desire to occupy a higher economic position in a society, get a prestigious job, high wages, and opportunities to get better education or to improve skills. The major centers of migration are the large cities that can satisfy these needs.

Globalization approach

In this section, we consider migration from the globalization perspective in the context of geopolitics. Traditionally, geopolitics is aimed to examine the links between the political power and geographic space. However, according to Graham Evans, it has wider connotations [23]. So, Joseph Nye introduced the concept of “soft power” [24], understood as the form of political influence, the legitimacy of which is expressed by voluntary participation and sympathy to the acts committed by the Supreme sovereign. The “soft power” concept contrasts with the “hard power” concept, based on coercion [24, p. 90]. Provided contradiction should be linked to the concrete examples of academic analysis of the migration of students, employees of the national universities of the Russian part of the BEAR region to Scandinavian countries. Education and training is provided in accordance to the ideological attitudes of countries and Western liberal thinking in general. In addition to educational purposes, the hosting party pursues a pragmatic interest: to form the worldview of students and interns in the coordinates that define the vision for socio-political affairs of the country of study, and then to broadcast it in their home country. Moreover, migration derived from geopolitical processes occurs against a background of political disputes, socioeconomic development strategies of the territories, clashes of national and transnational forces. In this regard, our attention is drawn to the activities of the Centre for the geopolitics of globalization and transnational security in Geneva22. The Center specializes in studies of the impact of globalization on politics, economics, society and cultural identity. The migration issues present in this focus being an explicit or hidden variable through which the globalization has shaped its outcomes.

Continuing the educational theme in the globalization perspective, it is necessary to refer to the research of Jean-Baptiste Meyer and David Kaplan. They state that the knowledge is in the focus of development in all spheres of public life [25]. Knowledge defines the dynamics of the international labor market, leads to the emergence of so-called “knowledge economy”. Knowledge can move in physical space and network by itself or together with its carriers. In the latter case it is more appropriate to speak about “migration of knowledge” [26]. We talk about the representatives of the academic world, migrating from “academic province” to the more scientifically developed regions. Meyer and Kaplan define academic mobility as a natural phenomenon among scientists and engineers. This phenomenon has its advantages and disadvantages. The first one is the “academic nomadism” [25, p. 312], because a scientist moves from one place to another, accumulating knowledge, experience and social capital. The “brain drain” leads to asymmetric distribution of scientific capital, depriving less industrialized areas any prospect of development and blocks the realization of the interests of the country in the geopolitical arena. The authors note that in recent decade, the academic migration of highly skilled workers, scientists and engineers has increased significantly, which is the result of globalization of the academic environment and the labour market.

Researchers M. Balbo and G. Marconi from the University of Venice [27] agree with the thesis that the increase of migration is one of the manifestations of globalization. In their view, it happens due to the development of the vehicles, which made it easier to move from one region to another. As a result, globalization has become a catalyst for the wave of migration of unskilled workers from poor developing countries to developed ones. This leads to the increase of the informal sector of the economy, increase of crimes and other manifestations of delinquency.

Over the past 10—15 years migration flows transformed from a predominantly rural to urban. What is the reason? For a long time migrants occupied the vacant niche in the service sector in the cities [28], today, however, the flow of highly skilled migrant workers, scientists and students is increasing. It is important to note that migrants are not going to any city, but mainly to the one that has been already “settled” by their relatives, friends or just people from the same areas of origin. In addition, the authors also note that there is a move towards the feminization of migration: increasingly, not only men, but women migrate in search of income, fulfillment, and a better life for themselves and their children.

A special issue related to migration is adaptation of migrants. The degree of integration in the host region23 depends on the knowledge of language, the availability of work with a proper level of income, legal status of migrants, participation in public and political life and the access to social services. When cultural and ethnic background of migrants is similar to characteristics of the host region, the adaptation is relatively painless. If the correlation between ethno-cultural parameters of the migrant and the host community is minor, the level of crime, human trafficking,

labour exploitation, fraud and corruption increase. According to the authors, migrants are more affected by the illegal activities such as drug trafficking, poaching, prostitution and organized crime because of social exclusion. Reliable mechanisms for migration management and well-developed legal framework could minimize the negative aspects of migration to cities.

In the framework of the globalization approach it would be relevant to discuss the statistics related to immigration and emigration in the countries of the Circumpolar region with the focus on the study of the reasons for migration. Speaking about the migration flows to Norway, it is important to note the immigrants from Poland and Lithuania. Their number is greater than the others’. In 2013, it was 10,502 and 3,093 people respectively. Moreover, these groups of immigrants amounted to about half of net migration among European citizens. They are followed by citizens of Sweden (5,271), Eritrea (2,729) and the Philippines (2,815). According to experts, in future there might be a decrease in the net migration of people from Poland, Lithuania and Somalia. Their place will be gradually taken by the residents of African countries. Last year the net migration among citizens from Romania, Syria and Eritrea increased the most. Among the Swedish citizens this indicator remains unchanged24.

The situation in Canada is as it follows. In 2012, the number of emigrants to this country from: China (12.8%), Philippines (12.7%), India (11.2%), Pakistan (3.9%) and the U.S. (3.7%)25. Analyzing the migration processes in Canada, three main categories of immigrants are found:

• 4-    Economic immigrants. Seven categories of economic immigrants could be found in the Canadian legal acts. The leading group is highly skilled workers (19.8% of the total). In 2010 economic migrants were accounted for 67% of the total number of migrants.

• 4-    Immigrants “for family reasons”. In Canada there is a developed state program under which the immigration of family members from other countries is organized in a simplified mechanism. This category has the second largest number — 22%.

• 4-    Refugees. People in need of protection. In 2010 their number was 9% of the total.

The main sources of immigration to Russia are the countries of CIS, Baltic States and Georgia. The majority of migrants (95%) come from 10 states: Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan, etc. Along with Norway and Canada, the main reason for immigration to Russia is the career opportunities. According to specialists from the Institute for Public Administration and Law, in 2013, migrant labour had ensured 7—8% of Russia's GDP26. Internally displaced persons and refugees could be defined as a separate category of migrants. According to data from October 1, 2013, there are 33 thousand internally displaced people permanently residing on the territory of the Russian Federation. Referring to the example of the Circumpolar region, we consider the data on the reasons for the internal migration in the Arkhangelsk region. The most common reasons for relocation is the need of education (22%), the need of work (15%) and a desire to return to the former place of residence (5%)27.

The globalization approach allows statistic data analysis in order to identify the main reasons for migration. The example of the Circumpolar region proves the thesis that knowledge specifies the dynamics of the international labor market, leads to the emergence of the “knowledge economy”. Globalization manages the dynamics of migratory movements. We can say that migration is a reflection of globalization on the local level. Migration is inevitable in a globalizing and urbanizing world. Migration flows are not amenable to strict management and forecasting, in the best case it can be adjusted. Then it can benefit not only the migrants themselves but also the host region.

Speaking of migration from the standpoint of the globalization approach it is necessary to take into account: first , the class composition of the moving groups (depends on adaptations in a new social environment); secondly , what time interval displacement is taking place (the more time it takes the greater impact it has on migrants and their external environment). With regard to the impact of migration flows, it should be noted that they, on the one hand, affect the area where the migrants come from, on the other hand, they transform the host region, where the migrants arrive. Noting the features of such an influence, it should be noted that the migrants directly and indirectly transform all spheres of public life. In the economic sphere, migration is a catalyst for the movement of capital and it is the potential labor force for the economic sector. In the cultural sphere it means the transformation of folk and mass culture, changes in language, traditions and customs. In the political sphere it leads to the mitigation of inequality between the richest and the poorest groups of the population.

Conclusion

Studying the migration through the prism of mobility, stratification and globalization approaches let us achieve the goals. We have reviewed the theoretical background focused on the migration issues. The next step for us is their use to conduct our own empirical research.

The heuristic potential of the mobility approach is defined as the conceptualization of migration processes from the point of view of the general frequency of movement of people in or outside of a specific region. Mobility demonstrates the absence of migration barriers, which might be seen as a closed labour market, the spread of xenophobia or a poor communication infrastructure. I would like to emphasize that the mobility approach provides a research perspective not only in relation to individuals, but also knowledge of the meanings of material objects that move together with them. This opens up new horizons for addressing migration issues.

Stratification approach provides direct and underlying reasons for social structure formation. For example, rural or urban origin has an impact on the position of migrants in the social hierarchy of the host region. Migrants’ resources (capitals), used to go up the social structure could become a distinct object for research.

The globalization approach allows us to study the migration with the use of geopolitical tools. A distinctive feature of this approach is its focus on a detailed examination of migration flows in the context of global processes in the modern world.