Risks of pollen-mediated gene flow from genetically modified maize during co-cultivation with usual maize varieties

Since 1985, active development of agricultural biotechnology has been associated with genetically modified (GM) plants. After the production of GM maize in the second half of the 1990s, the area of its crops has increased over 100-fold. Therefore, the GM maize spreeding and cross-pollination have become more practically relevant. Almost one third of the total area of all GM plants is occupied by GM maize. The Russian Federal Law No. 358 of 03.07.2016 prohibits the commercial use of GM plants in agriculture but allows their cultivation and testing for research purposes. This necessitates assessing and developing criteria, currently absent in Russia, for the safe co-cultivation of non-GM and GM varieties. This review analyzes the factors influencing pollen dispersion: wind (speed and direction), humidity (rain), physiology (viability), the pollen amount, the character of the landscape, the size, shape and orientation of the recipient fields, and the synchrony of flowering of the pollen donor and recipient...