“Selfie” as the paradigm of cultural change

With the mass production of the amateur photo equipment, becoming less and less technically demanding, photography has become an accessible tool in hands of a consumerist mass. Millions of disposable cameras, compact film or digital cameras, mobile phones with inbuilt photographic equipment, mirrors for selfshots, notebooks with web-cameras are used around the globe on a daily frequency. While the amount of photographs recorded is growing, a dominant genre changes. 11

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At the times of invention of the medium, landscape was a governing genre for the reason exposure was taking longer than fifteen minutes, making all movements blurred. Still, today there are less and less of reports on the immobile an stable real world. So called “National Geographic genres,” such as landscape or life photography are slowly being replaced with portraits of celebrities, but also selfportraits in a manner of celebrant idols. For that growing of self portraying genre some name this era the “era of the self-portrait” [Nunez 2013:104].1

Statistics, such as ones produced within the project Selfiecity demystify the percentage selfies partake in a corpus of other photographic images, which is about 3-5 percent.2 Despite the analytic has shown participation of selfies among other photographic depiction is still rather minor, it would be important taking into the account that the predominant production of the late XIX and early XX century was the portrait of the second person, while self-portraits were rare. Furthermore, at the time photography was invented, in the thirties of the XIX century, there were hardly any portraits recorded. The reason lied not in the interest or style, but rather limits of the technology, being incapable of recording in exposure time of less than fifteen minutes.

Still, as I will demonstrate in this article, it is not that this era has invented selfportrait as a genre, but has substantially changed a relationship to self, via inherent technologies. In my analysis, I will rely on Crary's thesis on the visual paradigm of the Premodern time, being camera obscura which can be contrasted to the visual paradigm of the Modern time, being photo camera. After elaborating a wider discussion on the two paradigms, I will introduce a Postmodern paradigm of the compact camera framing an amount of works produced around sixties and seventies. Finally, I will give some more distinctions about paradigms of the selfie, which technologically is produced by a mobile phone.

1.    Premodern self-portrait

The oldest self-portraits mentioned were ones painted on the clothes Veronica has laid in front of tortured Christ on his way to Golgotha, as well as King Agbar of Odessa’s Mandilion, both recording Christ’s face imprint. The main sculptor of Egyptian pharaon Akhenaten, Bak, has left a portrait with his wife standing in one of sculptural plastics. Pliny the Elder (6 BC) has mentioned two self portraits in

КРЕАТИВНАЯ ЭКОНОМИКА И СОЦИАЛЬНЫЕ ИННОВАЦИИ CREATIVE ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL INNOVATIONS

Greek times, self portrait of Theodorus, representing himself in a bronze miniature in a chariot, and Iaia of Cyricus (1BC), who was a known portraitist, but also made some self portraits.3 During the medieval times, many scribalists, such as St Dunston (909 BC-88 AC), Canon Rufulus of Weissman from Diocese of Constanze (1170-1200), Hildebertus (cca 1136), have painted their own self portraits in as small frames as letters.

Still, self-potraits were not culturally accepted all until Renaissance. Hall mentions also a case of imprisoning of a sculptor Phidias who dared to self-represent himself in the decoration of the statue of Athena [Hall 2014]. Only after 1500 self-portrait was only more widely explored and developed as a genre (ibid).4 Renaissance portraiture was a product of competitive aristocratic court cultures [Hall 2014]. Painters at the time used self portrait as the proof of their existence, description of their new social role, of courtier. Some of these artists were Albrecht Dürer (14711528), Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506), Adam Kraft (1440-1507), Perugino (14501523), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), but also Rembrandt (1606-1669) Plenty of them, also, used camera obscura, still not for making self-portraits, as at that time it was impossible to stabilize the image.5

2.    Modern self-portrait

It took many centuries to develop chemical image stabilisation process, which allowed the author to see oneself as in a mirror. The first such a photographic self, only portrait recently becoming famous was Hippolyte Bayard's (1801-1887) selfportrait, showing himself as a drawn man. Bayard has started a fashion of selfdramatization in the photography, which marks implementation of the photographic medium in the genre of self-portrait. The positive print, limited in a single copy contained a message claiming the theft of the invention of the very

КРЕАТИВНАЯ ЭКОНОМИКА И СОЦИАЛЬНЫЕ ИННОВАЦИИ CREATIVE ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL INNOVATIONS medium of photography.6 Still, the behind motif was, besides leaving a trace and document of the strange historical serial of events – to self-record. Selfrepresentation has been a legitimate among motifs of artists in production of selfportraits for centuries.7 The difference of the artistic self-portrait and the upcoming self-portraits in the technological medium was great. The availability of the equipment has introduced a form of self-portraiture which was not uncovering any of private details of a person recorded.

The common posing during the XIX century was pompous self-promotion, rather than narration, as the photography was enforcing the Narcissism of the bourgeois class. XIX century, which turned to self as an object in general, inventing a genre of autobiography, but also photography as a medium of the (self) reflection [Bourdieu 1990]. Furthermore, this subjectivity was constructed for the society. Nineteenth century simulations, in their early competition with painting, have withdrawn to this, classic, portrait style. Maybe also due to the impossibility to recognize if the picture is a portrait or a self-portrait, it seems the early selfphotography was suffering of the narrativisation of the self, with inherent subjectivisation. Images were based on proliferation of symbols or insignia on portraits, hand gestures inbuilt in the frame of American cut or full figure, but also providing a direct eye contact, that would latter become non-photographic, all characteristic for the Seventieth century, but moreover Romanticism.

In such a manner two of photographic self-portraits found were recorded: Jean-Gabriel Eynard, daguerreotypist Self-Portrait with a Daguerreotype of Geneva (circa 1847) and an image made by unknown photographer named Portrait of Unidentified Daguerreotypist ( 1845). In both images, photographers have presented themselves with the insignia, the first one of the radio, while the other with daguerreotype products. Some authors were more inventive, dressing and acting in allegoric narrative, as shown on the exhibition Self-Portrait, the

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Photographer’s Persona (1840-1985), [Kismaric 1985]. Not all the self-portraits were grounded on a self-promotion. O.J. Rejlander, for example, was among the authors not interested in a mere self-promotion. He posed himself in staged historical tableau vivants, he named “combination prints.” In On the Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872), based on Darwin, he posed alone, while in Happy Days his wife joined him. Similarly, Edward Steichen and Nadar made many self-portraits changing environments [Hannavy 2008]. These portraits were still only physiognomic, rather then attempting to show any psychological features. A rare example of psychologisation of the self-portrait was in the work of Margaret Cameron.

Beginning XX century the number of experiments grown, so even some painters such as an artist dying tragically young, Egon Schiele (1890-1918), for example, took their photographic self portraits. Still, Modernist photographers, contrary to painters, used self-portraits to play with self-image, as photographs could be edited while mirrors couldn't. So futurists such as Fortunato Depero (1892-1960) employed photo technology to alternate his own body image, or to describe his own vision of self in a metaphorical way, distorting it, for example, by multiple or slow exposures. These distortions reached the peak in a work of Hungarian artist Andre Kertesz (1894-1985), who used, aside photographic techniques different anamorphic optical devices, producing a mannerist reality.

Aside the formal appearance of the photograph Modernist portraits were also altering body image, gender crossing, but still producing consistent selves. In parallel to using pseudonyms and alter-egos, Marcel Duchamp (1887–1968) dressed as a woman in portrait entitled Rose Selavy, Man Ray also dressed as a lady in his self-portrait (1935), El Lissitzky dressed as Wanda Wulz in his own self-portrait (1932), or Claude Cahun dressed as a man. Besides Cahun, Margaret Bourke-White, Lotte Jacobi and Ilse Bing where also showing their “male,” technologically emancipated and advanced side of being a photographer / cameraman. These images show how they could be seen, or for what they could be envied. They were experimenting with formal aspects of the self-projection, than representing any individuality or subjectivity in their pictures, expanding their roles of self towards the outside, out of own borders, rather then investigating or interrogating inside a person recording. Still, these self-portraits framed boundaries, were clearly defining concepts of the self-image and self-projection, contrary to latter Postmodern dissolution of the self.

3.    Postmodern self-portrait

While Modernistic self-portrait had much of the Freudian psycho-analytical self- 15

КРЕАТИВНАЯ ЭКОНОМИКА И СОЦИАЛЬНЫЕ ИННОВАЦИИ CREATIVE ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL INNOVATIONS awareness, learning the “true self,” which was single, static and stable, Postmodern self-portrait turned out something else. Lasch made a useful distinction of the Modern and Postmodern self saying it was a difference of the action, admiration and fame of Modernism, in contrast to attributes, power and glamour of Postmodernism [Lasch 1991] This was precisely the time of the appearance of the less demanding equipment of the compact photo camera, but also, video technology, that has allowed many artists to use the equipment previously inaccessible to them.

Postmodern turn, furthermore, is marked by the analysis of the fragmentation and instability of the self, contrary to the modernistic ideal of the consistent self. Self, as defined via Postmodern theory distinguishes person from personality, the self and the subject, or portrait and mood [Martin and Barresi 2006]. In line with historical development of the writing from the “first person,” influenced by authors such as Roland Barthes, Jacques Derrida, or Michel Foucault, self portrait gained more important place among the artistic genres. Notable conceptual authors selfrecording in Narcissistic delight are also Lee Friedlander, Lucas Samaras, John Coplans, Chuck Close. Feminist photography, in regard, was usually depicting a middle age woman as antipodes of commerce of desire, become quite common representation in analysis of this difference [Loewenberg 1999]. By developing a critique of the society with the implementation or, better to say, reconstruction of the self, feminism was widening a set of motifs for the production of self-portraits in the art history.8 Authors such as Cindy Sherman, Julia Scher, Emily Jacir or Merry Alpern have explored a thin line of the surveillance society and feminist issues.9 It might be interesting here to note that one of the first self-portraitist in history mentioned was a woman, Iaia of Cyrcus (1BC), mentioned by Pliny the Elder. Pliny writes how Iaia never married and she painted portraits as well as self portraits during the times of antiquity.

Precisely for the Postmodern presentation of the non-integral self, self-portrait become a tool of psycho-therapy. Art media, in general, has been advised as a therapeutic tool since seventies, when the art therapy started developing. Selfportrait has been explored specifically at places where patients are unable or unwilling to speak on their trauma, as for example with child's abuse.10 One of the first self-therapeutic cycles, of self-analysis but also self-recalling, known Anne Nugle’s photo-serial of herself recovering from face-lifting in 1975. Still, an artist

of Psychiatric Nursing, Vol X, No5 (October, 1996: 311-318

КРЕАТИВНАЯ ЭКОНОМИКА И СОЦИАЛЬНЫЕ ИННОВАЦИИ CREATIVE ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL INNOVATIONS who developed the photo-therapy was Jo Spence, diagnosed with breast cancer and latter with leukemia. Spence recorded her own illness and presented it in a show named The Picture of Health (1986). Latter, with Rosy Martin, summing up theses on therapy via photography [Martin, 2009], she defined re-enactment phototherapy as; «making visible process, change and transformation, by going to the source of an issue or an old trauma, re-enacting it and making a new ending; a new possibility» [Martin 2009: 41]

Aside Re-enactment therapy, Spence used additional methods, such as scripting and collaborative methods, that were bringing much more of staging into photography.¹¹ Along self-portrait in the therapy, artists were also organizing portraits to enhance therapy of the represented people. So, Jo Spence and Rosy Martin organized photo-therapeutic family sessions, in which families were staging dramatic inner relationships to the camera (1983), during the time photographic equipment was not available as today. For developing various techniques and methods of phototherapy, today Spence is considered a founder of method and the most prominent example of almost heroic act of dealing with trauma, with the use of this technological mirror.¹² In two cycles Narratives of Disease and Final Project, she was recorded herself dealing with the operation of the breast cancer and facing own dyeing, defining self-portrait in a proper Postmodern style, as; «Instead of fixity, to us it represents a range of possibilities which can be brought into play at will, examined, questioned, accepted, transformed, discarded. Drawing on techniques learned from co-counseling, psycho-drama and the reframing technique we began to work together to give ourselves and each other permission to display 'new' visual selves to the camera ( Spence, undated) "¹³

Besides Spence, Hannah Wilke also recorded illness and death, starting with photographs of her mother dying of breast cancer, but later also her struggle with the illness on chemotherapy, in a serial of photographs entitled Intra-Venus (1982), recorded by her life-partner Donald Goddard. Wilke's work connects self-portraits with performance art, which seems have inspired the whole theme of “performing the identity,” based on psychoanalysis. Another artist, Cristina Nunez, continued experimenting with production of own self-portraits, but also enhancing others to make self-portraits, as in a project held in the prison.14 Nunez also organized workshops, gathering data on experiences on creating self-portraits, in which, she

КРЕАТИВНАЯ ЭКОНОМИКА И СОЦИАЛЬНЫЕ ИННОВАЦИИ CREATIVE ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL INNOVATIONS is the most interested into exploration of the Higher self, on the performative level. Only with the feminist photography introduction of the vulnerable self inside the photographic discourse it is possible to uncover issues of self-photographing photographs in the digital culture.

4.    Selfie

Recent years, with the merging of mobile phone technology with phototechnology, a new term and concept of the self portrait appeared fashionable, the concept of the selfie.15 Selfie is a photograph produced by mobile phone or similar technology which is disseminated by uploading on social networks. But, aside formal differences with classic art and photographic self-portraits there are many visual differences appearing.

To explain visual differences regarding the turn of paradigm that occurred between a self portrait and selfie I would like to point at two different self-portraits; classic Postmodern Hannah Wilke’s hospital self portrait and one from the selfie Olympics, of unknown lady self-photographing in a hospital bathroom.

Despite Hannah Wilke was usually being assisted by her partner, Donald Goddard, who was “clicking” the photo camera in set ups directed by Wilke, these images are considered self portraits. Hannah Wilke was focused on her illness and process of aging, throughout her work, still in this particular self-portrait, Wilke looks very sad and depressed, asking for care and gentleness. Contrary to Wilke, a hospital selfie shows a lady which thinks she looks pretty good and has probably a nicer day than many of people watching the photograph for some reason.

The difference visible immediately is the recording of the space in photography, as defined by camera lenses. Mobile phone technology usually uses wide lenses implementing fixed lenses with digital zoom.16 Digital zoom-in provides only enlarges a picture, without optically enforcing it, as it would by focusing onto the

КРЕАТИВНАЯ ЭКОНОМИКА И СОЦИАЛЬНЫЕ ИННОВАЦИИ CREATIVE ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL INNOVATIONS distant object. For that reason the image splits apart and seems disintegrated. Such is the case of the hospital selfie. The overall experience of the image is flat, despite the fact of hundreds of years of development of art was struggling to reach the depth of the image.

Another difference comes from the positioning of the light. The light of a mobile phone and a regular studio portrait light is also different.17 While for a regular studio portrait there are, at least, three flashes; master light, fill-in and backdrop light, with selfie there is at least a single light source, usually incorporated within the camera itself. When there is not enough of light to record, digital camera is automatically rising up the sensitivity (ISO) and images automatically depict the real color of under lighting, usually in yellowish gamma, depicting an unnatural smokers’ type of skin color. High ISO also disintegrates the image further into visible radial pixels with aura, wherever the light touches a contour of an object in counter-light. This problem would be avoided with slower exposure, but automatic equipment generally strives for the shorter one, by default.

The third difference is in a time of exposing. Contrary to these selfies, the timing of classic portrait is slowed, conditioned by a slowness of the equipment itself. As Danto latter elaborated, there is an intrinsic relationship of conditioning with the technique of a slow exposure [Danto 2008]. No matter the sensitivity of the film or camera's chip, no matter the light capacity of the lens, to portray means to record in a slow mode, bellow the 60th part of the second. Whereas to portray is to slow down, the snapshot photography splits the time sequence of the ordinary vision and underlined sub-quanta facial expressions [De Duve 1978]. Snapshot photography, as selfies are belonging rather to life photography genre, precisely for the difference between posing and movement, staging and catching, introducing certain deadness in the discourse of a studio portrait.

Automatic exposures of mobile and compact photo-camera do not allow choosing of the parameters, such as aperture of camera. All the losses in lighting the portrait are refunded by automatically by rising up the ISO settings and slowing the exposure. Without camera aperture, a depth of field cannot be chosen, in the style of portraying, such as high or low key. Predominantly, selfies are produced in the high key, which is a result of the automatic rising of the ISO, rather then smaller aperture. To mask these disadvantages mobile phone cameras usually have a variety of filters incorporated, that assist producing an art-ish image, but are covering technological malformations.

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And finally, the most interesting difference comes with the relationship to self and society via image of the self. Posing is a social transmission code, based on complete simulation. Encountering a meeting with the gaze of public was producing posing, since very beginning of photography. People quite often practice their best image in a mirror, but once they remove their gaze from the mirror, their best faces may turn easily to grimaces. Photography also plays a part in the pathological Narcissism, Lasch notes; “ A smile is permanently graven at one features, and we already know from which angle it photographs to best advantage ” [Lasch 1991: 47]. On selfies, people do not communicate with anyone in particular, aside themselves, so they appear introvert, dealing with delicate, stressful, frustrating self-issues.

Mobile phone as a visual paradigm

Selfies as portraits do uncover many of problems the contemporary society online is facing, one of which is surely a digital solitude, which screams for the attention, crossing borders of morality or rules of behavior in public space. The largest difference of the classic self portrait and the selfie appears in the use of a mobile phone technology. Selfies are multi-distributed in networked society. Aside technical aspects of selfie photography, indicating a decay of the classic genre of portrait, instant networking allows many possibilities previously not present, providing advantages in the distribution systems of photography.

The reason for their mass appearance, as said, may be found in the coinciding development of the Web2 platforms made for social networking, that have, as the effect of enhancing the communication of everyone to everyone, deepened the digital debris. They seem to call for the interpretation of the digital solitude, in which they exemplify Marxist theory of alienation, but being held of both sides of the abandoned reality and the digitized reality, as can be seen in the Barack Obama’s selfie, made in presence of his abandoned wife, on Nelson Mandela’s Memorial, becoming a paradigm of the alienation.18

The question now is if humanity gets used on the red-eyed, concaved, pixelated images of themselves, would it also accept the change in the self-projection, in the mirror more easily, and finally would such a change make a substantial change on

КРЕАТИВНАЯ ЭКОНОМИКА И СОЦИАЛЬНЫЕ ИННОВАЦИИ CREATIVE ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL INNOVATIONS the self-esteem. So, what can be seen as a final stage of this development is a complete disappearance of the self in the broadcasted society.