Socio-cultural reserves of economic growth: productivity of the work chosen according to one's calling

One of the topical issues of social sciences is to determine the effect of various factors on the socio-economic development of the society. In economic science, there are more and more allegations that, along with economic resources, non-economic ones are equally important. The latter includes socio-political, geographical, psychological, infrastructural and other factors1. Non- economic factors highlighted by researchers include: information, “quality and productive labor, quality of life, level of culture, education, professional knowledge and skills, and health as components of human capital, which in fact have proven to be “motivators” of stable long-term economic development”2 (Tab. 1). The impact of non-economic factors is indirect and multi-stage in nature and has a longer time lag in comparison with economic factors. Their neglect, as shown by economic practice, leads to untimely inadequate measures taken at different levels of regulation and forecasting of the national economy3.

In this article, we will focus on determining the impact of non-economic factors on territory’s economic development selecting social and cultural resources including mental attitudes, life values, population’s national and cultural traditions, and professional calling.

Materials and methods

The informational framework of the study includes data from sociological surveys on the

Table 1. Non-economic factors in economic growth

Types of non-economic factors Kinds of non-economic factors Socio-political Socio-political stability Interethnic and interfaith consent Psychological Entrepreneurial traits (enterprise) Motivation Geographical and environmental factors Geographic conditions Climatic conditions Light zone Infrastructural Scientific and technical, communication, educational, medical, cultural infrastructure Socio-cultural Mental attitudes Morality Cultural traditions Professional calling Sources: compiled by the authors from: Ipatov P.L., Dines V.A., Rusanovskii V.A. The concept of non-economic factors in studying the processes of national economy development. Economics and Management, 2009, no. 3/6 (44), pp. 5-12; Sedyukova E.A., Bezglasnaya E.A. Non-economic factors and their impacts on successful economic modernization. Scientific e-archive. Available at: (accessed: 28.11.2016). quality of labor potential in the Vologda Oblast conducted by ISEDT RAS in the region in 2014 and 20164.

To measure the qualitative characteristics of the working-age population in the context of monitoring, we used a technique5 based on

Figure 1. Structure of labor potential quality

Source: Ustinova K.A., Gubanova E.S., Leonidova G.V. Human capital in innovation economy: monograph . Vologda: ISEDT RAS, 2015. 195 p.

the concept of qualitative characteristics of the population (N.M. Rimashevskaya). It helps evaluate eight basic qualities⁶ (physical and mental health, cognitive capacity and creativity, communication skills, cultural and moral levels, need for achievement) and calculate the integrated index of labor potential quality referred to as a social capacity in the presented methodology ( Fig. 1 ).

It should be noted that since 2015 the study of problems of professional calling had been supported by the Russian Foundation for Humanities together with the scientists from Institute of Sociology of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus. The block of questions measuring the prevalence of the phenomenon was also used in the studies carried out by ISEDT RAS: “Labor potential quality in the Vologda Oblast” (2014, 2016), “The socio-cultural image of the region” (2015), “Professional calling” (2016). The paper presents data from the sociological survey of the population in the Mogilyov Oblast in the Republic of Belarus conducted by Institute of Sociology of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus in 2016.

Theory

The socio-cultural factors of economic development were addressed to by scholars such as P. Sorokin, A. Akhiezer, A. Auzan, N. Lapin, L. Ionin, N. Chernysh, M. Gorshkov, V. Yadov and others.

The main factors of any social change, according to the research by P.A. Sorokin, “lie in the socio-cultural phenomena and those social and cultural conditions in which they occur and function”7. The “sociocultural” phenomena were referred to as everything “people get from other people through continued interaction with culture as a carrier of supra-organic values”. “Spiritual values” in this case are all derivatives of human consciousness (language, science and philosophy, religion, art, law, ethics, manners, morals, technical inventions, etc.). “Social culture” in his understanding is a basic category of supra-organic matter (social world)8.

Works by Akhiezer A. interpret the “sociocultural environment” as external reality relative to an individual. Moreover, the author describes it firstly by “level of creative potential of people surrounding the subject, their level of self-reflection, for example, the level and scale of private initiative established by the pace of novelty, power, flow and nature of innovations, the content of mainstream values, moral ideal, etc.”9

Russian economist A. Auzan defined this factor as a kind of a “cultural code” (i.e. a set of images associated with any set of stereotypes) which can affect the economic development of countries10. This code, according to the theory of A. Auzan, promotes the understanding and accounting of behavioral responses of a particular people. Socio-cultural factors in this sense are particularly important for economic and political transformations11.

American scientist L. Harrison defines culture as “a system of values, beliefs and attitudes shared by the members of the society and formed mainly by environment, religion, historical events and transmitted from generation to generation”12, which covers many aspects of development of the human society and is close in content to the concept of civilization.

All the foregoing suggests that the use of the concept of “cultural (civilizational) code” in sociological research is associated with these approaches. According to Belarusian scientists, the research of the country’s civilizational code aims to study and provide recommendations on how to turn the country’s socio-cultural potential into economic results. “Maximum use of national and cultural characteristics can significantly improve the quality of life and affect the overall development of the society.” 13

The essence of the typological approach to culture by V. Abushenko is that “the basis of different kinds of cultural choices of individuals and groups are value priorities. But they exist not ion their own, but in conjunction with the activity component in the sense that it is implemented in people’s real practical activities and are fixed in repetitive patterns of behavior”14. One of the patterns of behavior, work behavior in particular, can be a special socio-cultural phenomenon such as choice of vocation (or professional calling).

The position of V.R. Shukhatovich is to explore the phenomenon of professional calling as a non-economic factor of economic growth, one of the components of economic development, representing a positive trend in the economy. Appeal to the phenomenon of professional vocation is due to the fact that in modern socio-humanistic concepts of noneconomic factors which include “professional calling”15, it is often ignored.

Thus, the purpose for the study is to evaluate the influence of a socio-cultural phenomenon of professional calling on the economic performance of people’s labor activity (for example, wages, work efficiency and quality, motivation, etc.) which is directly linked to issues of productivity as the basis for material reproduction and productivity of the economy.

In scientific literature, professional calling is conceptualized as ( Tab. 2 ):

• 1)    work as a meaning and purpose of life (value);

• 2)    a source of self-realization (motive);

• 3)    a method of performing a professional role, which requires full dedication (work

  Table 2. Some approaches to the interpretation of the term “vocational calling”

  Approach	Author	Definition
  Axiological	S.Yu. Vishnevskii	Objective social necessity, the core of any profession without which it can exist but cannot develop efficiently. Qualitative characteristics of activities of individuals, communities, generation, society are expressed – rationally or irrationally – in understanding of its necessity (as the unity of social interests and needs, aptitudes), willingness to engage in professional activities and choosing real professional roles, statuses and institutional positions.
  	A.N. Kosolapov	Attraction to a particular profession, awareness of one’s potential abilities or capabilities in mastering this profession.
  	S.A. Shavel’	Human’s free choice based on ability to anticipate (the result of activities) and internalize social roles the person agrees to be associated with.
  	E.V. Palei	Assessment of a profession through one’s personal values.
  	A.V. Mikhailov	The integrity of one’s professionally significant, unique creative characteristics.
  	K.V. Karpinskii	Professional activity which serves as an ultimate self-sufficient value performing the sensemaking function in relation to holistic life; individual’s understanding, experiencing and implementing one’s work as a meaningful value.
  Motivational	N.R. Salikhova	Integrated human characteristic manifested in stable positive, emotional, volitional, and selectively-cognitive attitude to a profession, willingness to self-realization in one’s profession.
  	A.F. Karavaev	A complex act of emergence and awareness of motives of professional choice.
  	E.R. Khairullina	Highest expression of individual’s professional focus.
  	F. Tonnies	A phenomenon capable of forming a community-based type of social relations at different levels of institutional organizations.
  Factor	V.R. Shukhatovich	A phenomenon reflecting the spiritual connection with a profession associated with deep devotion it, high responsibility, dedication, selflessness, creative attitude to work.
  	L.N. Maksimova	A subjective factor in forming professional culture.

  Source: compiled by the authors from: [12; 14; 19; 20; 24; 26; 31; 34; 39].

  
  

behavior, non-economic factor in economic development)16.

In the early twentieth century, the phenomenon of “calling” was first addressed to by the founders of the sociology M. Weber and

• E. Durkheim. In his works, M. Weber puts great emphasis on the importance of inner aspiration, sensuality and fulfilling one’s professional calling¹⁷.

M. Weber who invented the concept of “vocational calling” in politics identified three reasons for “domination”:

• 1)    the authority of “yesterday’s leader”;

• 2)    the authority of “extraordinary personal gift” (charisma);

• 3)    domination “due to legality”.

However, professional calling of a politician “in its highest expression” was associated by M. Weber with charismatic leadership which is inseparable from obedience based on faith in them, rather than on law or tradition (as in the first and the third case). According to Weber, politician’s calling is the inner core of charisma manifested at the sensory-emotional and rational (conscious) level18.

• E. Durkheim interpreted vocational calling from the perspective of ethics with an emphasis on professionalism as an important characteristics of calling¹⁹. The ethical aspect of professional calling later became the subject of research for many scientists.

In particular, D. Gustafsson identified the traits of professional calling: high level of motivation and deep vision of goals20. He concluded that work performance without calling does not have any moral and humanistic roots as it causes the loss of true essence of work.

Vocation is studied in the framework of several scientific disciplines ( Tab. 3 ).

In most scientific works and areas the phenomenon of vocation is associated with a specific profession (vocation in teaching, journalism, politics, etc.) or mission (Weber, Bourdieu, Hegel), meaning of life (E. Mounie, S. Frank, B. Vysheslavskii), and person’s inner duty (V.N. Lossky: vocation is personal connection with God, human perfection ²¹; J. Fichte: a scientist ‘ s goal is to teacher the human race ²²; L.N. Kogan: the purpose and meaning of life ²³), creative manifestation of human’s unique nature (N. Berdyaev, G. Simmel, J. Ortega y Gasse).

• V. Shukhatovich considers vocation as a social phenomenon as it is “a product of human mind” and is able to form “trust among people”²⁴.

  Table 3. Areas of scientific research of the phenomenon of vocation

  Concepts Representatives Vocation is… Transcendental S.L. Frank E. Mounie B.P. Vysheslavskii a purpose, goal set by absolute existence Sociological M.Weber K.Marx J. Fichte P. Bourdieu S.Yu. Vishnevskii a social phenomenon defining the human’s focus on the society, the necessity of reproduction of social relations. an important feature of vocation is activity (social, professional, etc.) Individualistic C.G. Jung J. Ortega y Gasse an integrated program of human existence encouraging people to choose their own path in life different from the generally accepted. Ontological G.F. Hegel J. Fichte N. Berdyaev a holistic phenomenon whose existence is connected with the search for the meaning of life Sources: Vishnevskii S.Yu. Vocation as a socio-cultural issue: historical and sociological analysis: Doctor of Sociology dissertation abstract. Yekaterinburg: Ural State University, 2006; Ortega y Gasset J. V poiskakh Gete [In search of Goethe from within]. Translated by A.B. Matveev. Available at:

  
  

Professional vocation is deep dedication to profession, high responsibility and devotion, selflessness, creative attitude to work, spiritual connection of a human with their profession, as well as positive mental attitude in work (pleasure form work, satisfaction with work and life in general). “Vocation is the contact point of natural abilities and personal preferences”25.

Adding to the ideas of V. Shukhatowich, we tried to answer the question about the impact of vocation on objective economic indicators of work activity (e.g., wages, work efficiency and quality, etc.) and the subjective perception of an individual’s life and work. We empirically confirmed the hypothesis that vocation gives a more pronounced economic impact than a job within one’s specialty, and is accompanied by growing satisfaction with work and life in general.

Research results

Opinion surveys show that vocation job is characteristic of more than a half of the employed population of the Vologda Oblast (56.7% in 2014, 55.2% in 2016, according to the monitoring of the qualitative condition of labor potential26) and a significant share of the population of the Mogilev Oblast in the Republic of Belarus (42%).

In terms of sectoral distribution, the largest share (over 70%) of those who have mental connection with their profession is in the armed forces, culture and education (economic spheres which are associated with the sense of duty, “service” in public consciousness). Least prevalent (less than 50%) is vocation among agricultural and trade workers.

It should be noted that this study is unique as it is only conducted in Belarus and the Vologda Oblast; therefore, its factual basis is significantly limited. However, conducting several sociological surveys in the region gives an opportunity for generalizations and conclusions about prevalence (manifestation) of the phenomenon among the employees, its economic effects.

A distinctive feature of the research of professional vocation in the context of monitoring labor potential quality in the Vologda Oblast, which forms the scientific novelty, is the evaluation of employees’ selffulfillment and qualitative characteristics on the labor market. Assessment of population’s use of qualities was carried out based on the method developed in the framework of the aforementioned approach27. It is based on a block of questions such as “How much do you commit yourself at work? To what extent do you use your qualities and skills?” The calculations were made with the use of the following four-point scale: fully use

(maximum) – 4 points; more or less fully (can use more) – 3; partially (not much) – 2; very little (minimum) – 1. Further, by dividing the actual number of points on the scale into maximum possible number and multiplying by 100% for each respondent on each of eight qualities we obtained a figure conventionally named “level of labor potential quality implementation”. The average level of implementation of labor potential of an individual socio-demographic group was calculated as arithmetic mean of the level of implementation of each of its member.

Based on the question proposed by V. Shukhatowich28: “Do you work according to your degree obtained at professional educational organizations (university, college, vocational school)?” and “Does your occupation (main job) match your vocation?”, all working respondents, with the exception of those who did not receive a degree and those who were undecided (in 2016 – 32.9%), were divided into four groups subject to further detailed analysis:

• •    the first group – respondents working within their specialty and vocation (39.7%);

• •    the second group – respondents working within their specialty, but outside vocation (4.5%);

• •    the third group – respondents working according to their vocation, but outside their specialty (10.8%);

• •    the fourth group – respondents working outside their specialty and vocation (12.1%).

For each group we estimated the quality of labor potential and its level of implementation, average salary, satisfaction with work and life etc.

The assumption about the emotional ties between human and their profession is confirmed by the responses of the working population of the Vologda Oblast ( Fig. 2 ). One in every three respondents (74%) mentions this aspect of social-labor relations.

Highlighting the positive mental approach in the working life as a component of vocation, we believe that it gives, together with other components of the analyzed phenomenon, the economic effect which is reflected in greater economic returns from a higher level of labor potential realization, suggesting greater productivity ( Fig. 3 ).

According to various research, vocation determines higher salaries, meaning larger tax base for the region’s budget and, correspondingly, higher consumer demand from such workers. In socio-psychological terms, the effect is reflected in higher indices of life satisfaction, employment, working conditions ( Tab. 4 ) and, despite the negative index, greater satisfaction with salary.

The measurement results showed that the first group is characterized by ( Tab. 5 ):

• •    first, higher labor potential quality (the integrated index in this group is 0.704 against 0.670; 0.698; 0.685 units in the second, third and fourth groups, respectively);

• •    secondly, higher level of labor potential realization (level of labor potential quality realization – 83.0% against 80.5; and 76.1 to 82.4%, respectively);

• •    thirdly, higher salaries (the average salary in this group – 23725 rubles, in others – 20932, 21139, and 17170 rubles, respectively).

If profession and vocation do not match, those who chose vocation (third group) are characterized by more intense realization of labor potential and higher salary difference between.

If we consider the subjective perception of life and work, there is an interesting phenomenon: the third group of responds – those who Work outside their specialty, but within vocation comes at the forefront. These people experience a kind of “euphoria” from the fact that they found their calling and were not afraid to abandon their jobs in favor of a lifetime pursuit. Thus, in the third group of respondents, the average level of job satisfaction on a five-point scale in 2016 was 4.0 points, in the first group – 3.8 points, in the second – 3.2 points, in the fourth – 3.1 points. The level of life satisfaction in general in the third group is also higher:

Figure 2. Distribution of answers to the question: “Do you think there is spiritual and emotional connection with your profession (what is called a vocation)?” (% of respondents)

□ Yes             UNO

Source: data from population survey in the Vologda Oblast about their attitude to professional vocation (2016; 1500 people).

Figure 3. Level of labor potential realization among working and nonworking population according to their vocation, %

Source: Monitoring a labor potential quality of the population in the Vologda Oblast; ISEDT RAS, 2016.

• 4.1 points against 4.0, 3.5, and 3.5 points, respectively. All this confirms the hypothesis of the study.

Discussion

Thus, we see that the phenomenon of “professional calling” demonstrates a positive trend. Of course, we must understand that we cannot separate the selected factor from economic factors. However, it should be taken into account at all levels of management – from enterprise to state. One should contribute not only to the formation of these resources and expansion of their influence, but also to their effective use.

Table 4. Indices* of satisfaction with life and work in groups of working and non-working population according to their vocation

Satisfaction with	Does your profession match your vocation?
	2014	2016	2014	2016	2014	2016
	Yes		No		Undecided
Life	0.506	00.692	0.088	0.333	0.264	0.510
Work	0.504	0.615	-0.088	0.031	0.094	0.345
Salary	-0.136	-0.039	-0.680	-0.409	-0.452	-0.259
Working conditions	0.443	0.495	-0.004	0.009	0.067	0.283

* Each index was obtained by subtracting the frequency of negative responses from the positive frequency and dividing the value by 100. The resulting index takes values from 1 to -1, while the minus value means the numerical superiority of negative statements. Source: Monitoring of labor potential quality of the population in the Vologda Oblast; ISEDT RAS, 2014, 2016.

Table 5. Main characteristics of employee groups, working/not working within their specialty and vocation in the Vologda Oblast in 2016

Indicator	Work within their specialty and vocation		Work within their specialty, but outside vocation		Work outside their specialty, but within vocation		Work outside their specialty and vocation
	2014	2016	2014	2016	2014	2016	2014	2016
Share of workers, %	32.8	39.7	12.3	10.8	4.3	4.5	9.5	12.1
Labor potential quality index, units	0.702	0.704	0.697	0.698	0.667	0.670	0.654	0.685
Average salary, rubles.	20383	23725	20439	21139	16829	20932	15152	17170
Average level of labor potential realization, %	81.9	83	82.5	82.4	74.5	80.5	70.2	76.1

Source: data from of labor potential quality of the population in the Vologda Oblast in 2014 and 2016.

It is required to ensure substantial strengthening of career guidance with the youth, detect children’s inclinations and abilities as early as possible and help them in determining their vocation.

It is necessary to account for this phenomenon in the work of each enterprise and organization, encouraging employees to work according to their vocation given higher levels of their labor potential realization. Systemic work in this area should be focused more on the mandatory development in institutions of a well-functioning system of lifelong education enabling quick relearning, as well as establishment of labor market institutions ensuring rapid response to requests from its actors and increasing the flexibility of social and labor relations.