Stalin’s NeoNEP as the precursor of mass repressions of 1937-38s in the European North

It is written a lot about repressions, including basing on the materials of the Northern Territory. But these researches have mostly emotional-empirical character. In this article the author tries to follow some logic of repressive politics of the 1930s, paying attention to three factors: firstly , open the phenomenon of NeoNEP of 1934—1936, which appeared in the country after derationing as one of the reasons for mass Stalin terror; secondly , to appreciate the character of accusation in «sabotage» and its influence on massive repressions; thirdly , to show consequences of «purges of staff» in 1937—1938 for socio-economic development of the European North.

To resist at the helm of state at rough spots of crucial point in 1929—1930 Stalinist government could just because of strict repressions. Later repressions became necessary as covering of reforms’ inefficiency at the first half of thirties, which didn’t achieve the promised results especially in the social branch.

The question is that parallel to staff terror in 1929—1933 there was forming government of nomenclative bureaucratism, which was connected by ration-card benefits and which had no backing of mainstream population. By 1934 Stalin, who possessed the overriding sixth sense, couldn’t help feeling the breakup between population and privileged party-Soviet bureaucracy. Staying in the South on October 22, 1934 he wrote to Kaganovich: «We must have 1 milliard 400500 million of poods of bread to destroy the bread rationing system by the end of this year, which used to be necessary and useful not long ago, but which became chains for state industry nowa- days» [1, p. 790]. According to the author’s point of view, in historiography there was no reflection of the contemporaneity of two very important events: canceling of bread rationing system in November 1934 by the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of the Bolsheviks plenum (beginning of quasi-market economy of NeoNEP) and murder of S.M.Kirov. When Sergey Mironovich died, in the same day Stalin himself prepared the USSR CEC resolution, which was called «Law from the 1st of December», according to which practice of conviction and destroying of accused persons without their being in the court and without cassational appeals was introduced [1, p. 790]. In such a way Stalin got around two problems at once: 1) by canceling of rationing system he on some extent he adjusted human social situation in possibility to provide their survival and prosperity at the expense of self-realization; 2) repressions against formed nomenklatura the headman in a monarchial way tried to «make peace» with people.

But during the process of such an original social warming, in the form of maybe and inferior market NeoNEP, in 1935-1936 not only the intensity of class contradictions has reduced, but also appeared a natural question on responsibility for consequences of precede transformations, which resulted in hunger, forfeitures and deaths of million of people. Analysis of problems of precede to NeoNEP period was caused mostly against centers will to puzzle out what was done in conditions the so-called broad beginning of socialism.

This speciality is noticed by well-known historian and philosopher M. Gefter: «One noble man, talented historian, who has passed all circles of hell told me with smile remembering both 1934 and 1935, — he writes: «It was spring. Spring of writing conference and canceling rationing system, liquidation of political departments and cession of land for «perpetual use» to kolkhoz, reduction of industrialization and emphasis on prosperity, spring of renaissance of forgotten historians together with rehabilitation of chosen epochs and figures from «damned past», spring of preparation of new constitution and annihilation of the barriers of classes. Self criticism was in full swing. From party and non-party people (joint active assets) it went to People’s Commissars» [2, p. 353]. Matter of Stalinist NeoNEP was developed by V.Rogovin in his work [3].

Documents of those years help to understand beginnings and meaning of mass repressions of 1937—1938 in a better way. It appears that not all the accusations brought against for example government of the Northern region were groundless. It is evident, that mistakes were caused by, as usual, insufficient competence of governing, first of all of party government or, as said in those days, of directive, who relied not so much on judgment as on Bolshevistic dogmas and furious aspiration of regional leaders to create a carrier and of ruling coterie to save the power. In a short period of NeoNEP this incompetence became evident to some extent. It is difficult to quarrel with,

Арктика и Север. 2014. № 17 for example, logic of NeoNEP criticism of the Northern region government, who became the basis in the end of 1937 of indictments of new wave of repressions.

Enthusiasts and victims of «great» breakup

However, let’s give the word to documents and drop peculiar for those times espionage and felonious rhetoric. Harmful activity, according to accusative documents, in timber industry aligned in following way: breakage of logging operations; wrecking at drivings; wrecking at sawmilling and timber export — sales at low prices to foreign states; exasperation of workers because of impossible cultural and living conditions, unpaid wages. «Wood — is the basis of development of our North, — it was noticed earlier, — to cut up, disorganize and destroy this basis — means to knock for a goal in the whole economy of the North. That’s why it was keynoted by all the possible measures and methods to destroy woods of the North, …to gang up on the wood by the whole world, to cut right and left, where it was possible, to work in the forest wear and tear, not to gather branch wood…It is enough for our century»1. Let’s read further: «Cut of wood was done randomly, and were at the end of the season. Storms were organized — proven method of enemies: to delay, and then, when it was impossible to drag feet, it was necessary to take appropriate actions. Hundreds of people were discharged from industrial enterprises and were taken to the forest. In such a way they killed two birds with one stone: from one side, cramming, which didn’t do anything but harm, and from the other side, reorganization of dozens and hundreds of establishments, because heads of these establishments were in the forest» 2.

As a result of this cramming it is registered later in accusations for the heroes of «wooden Donbas», — «…annually in the forest by stub there was left from one and half to two million cubic meters of timber…According to the most approximate estimates during 1931—1936 by the stub there was left more than 12 million cubic meters of timber… Littering of forest led to windfalls, comfortable facilities for infestation of forests with pests (timber beetles) and for woods fires»3. Accusers didn’t forget that «…workers every summer asphyxiated from wooden fires, collective farm workers in hundreds and thousands were detached from kolkhoz field works. When counting up all other losses, it will be astronomic number which pales in comparison with all the numbers of losses from direction on the North by general Miller»4.

It was called to mind that «…enemies especially actively operated in drive, where enemies’ activity was concentrated mostly in following directions: а) breakdown of preparations to drive; б) destroy of Northern original rivers; в) disregard and breakdown of governmental decisions on prohibition of log drifting; г) breakdown of drifting mechanization; д) transfer of main difficulties of bundling works to the autumn period; е) breakdown of timber drive to the Arkhangelsk port»5. It was announced for all to hear that»…drifting was considered to be the central part of sabotage. Enemies did a lot for timber to be carried away to the sea. As a result, under strong estimates along one hundred kilometers of the Unsk bay on the left shore it was laying as minimum two millions cubic meters of timber. In the same conditions were shores of the Onega and Mezen bays and the whole right shore of the White sea»6.

Argumentations of accusations of ascetics of the «great» breakdown was rather decisive because it was impossible to deduce economy of great region to timber industry: «It is impossible to forget that the region is rich in natural resources. We have coal, zinc, oil, granite, gneiss, great number of construction materials, limestone, gypsum, etc. Enemies, who entered geological trust tried to conceal treasures of our Soviet land. Speaking about economy of the Arkhangelsk region we must with all the evidence underline great value of agriculture, …we must not forget that it is considered to be the motherland of wonderful cattle breed — Kholmogory cattle»7.

Logic of conclusions is practically irrefutable, it was really the result of critical understanding of «socialism storm» on the cusp of 1920—30s years during the short period of NeoNEP in 1935—36. Right during that time drift floating along the Northern Dvina river was delayed, a question on necessity of relocation inland the Northern taiga of timber industry facilities, construction of pulp-and-paper mills was accelerated. With adoption of new kolkhoz regulations in 1935 the atmosphere in northern villages changed for the better. It could be named as the so-called sobriety after ultra-social «soak» comparable with 90s of the last century and therefore still current nowadays.

Each period of time has its own heroes

Dmitrii Alekseevich Kontorin was the so-called hero on the eve of mass repressions again according to documents. He worked in Arkhangelsk since 1927, firstly as instructor of party governorate committee, then department supervisor, secretary of the town committee, since 1929 in Northern regional committee he was department supervisor, third secretary, since January 1932

— the second secretary, and since February to October 1937 he was the first secretary of AllUnion Communist Party (Bolsheviks) regional committee firstly of Northern and later of Arkhangelsk region8. He made well disposed because when he came to a power he tried to change bends of «great» fracture. In the book «Cold house of Russia. Documents, researches, thoughts on regional priorities of the Russian North» his public speakings in regional committee bureau on questions of the third year-plan period from the 19th of June 1937 and memorandum report to Stalin and Molotov with claim to change attitude to Arkhangelsk in supplying goods from the 29th of June of the same year were published. Performing before his subordinates he pointed the challenge «…elevation of timber production. How many wastes there are in the forest? From fulllength log we take 30% of needful timber, and more than 60% we throw in the forest. Why can’t we think of small gas-generating plants and small enterprises?»

His other view was connected with problems of electrification. «The upshot is that in the draft plan or hand labor and all the others is ignored, or they go right to electrification. Either everything is with chopper or electrification. And where are intermediate links? …We are rich in water, why can’t we use it to obtain energy. Why do we have equipment for wind turbines which lie around the ATTI for already three years and we don’t use it? On the North Pole wind turbines give energy and we can’t use this idea in Arkhangelsk? We must balance everything to ease the labor of a worker and move along the way of reconstruction of all the branches of national industry». Secretary of the regional committee was anxious with many problems. «And Arkhangelsk? — he asks a question to his people. — How long will we move along one street? We must cardinally put a question on development of Kotlas, Veliky Ustug and Naryan-Mar. Take port industry, what investments do we have there. There is no art and culture in the plan…» [4, pp. 278-279].

D.Kontorin was really judgmental in his memorandum report to Stalin. He underlined far and wide the role of Arkhangelsk for the north of our country and he also payed attention of the USSR government to «…it is not payed enough attention from the part of leading central bodies. Northern All-Union Communist Party Bolsheviks regional committee asks to equate Arkhangelsk speaking about provisioning to cities, which use privileged provisioning of above-cited goods»9.

Expressing the spirit of times, D.Kontorin calls attention of his subordinates: «We must think over all the questions, especially questions of quality, because the 3rd five-year plan period will be probably focused on cultural effervescence (emphasized by the author) of production as a whole, and in different branches. We have enough money to start in the area of culture»10. Again, as in the period of NeoNEP, terrible for the Stalinist period word «culture» became current, which could only provide immune resistance from totalitarianism. Splash of repressions of 1937—1938, to our point of view, was induced, from one hand, by the fear of central government before striving of people to open true reasons of misfortunes of socialism «storm», and from the other hand, it was used by the center for horrification of society, for suspension of the process of cultural life in the country for survival which was formed during fracture of political regime.

Machiavellist Stalin

Stalin again approved himself as a wonderful machiavellist. In the struggle with former popular in the party N.I.Buharin he «presented» at the end of 1936 new year holidays (which were forbidden in 1929), Constitution and «free elections». But shortly before adoption of the Constitution, on September 25, he sent (together with A.Zhdanov) a well-known telegram to L.Kaganovich, V.Molotov and other parties of Politburo: «We consider it to be absolutely necessary and urgent to appoint Ezhov as People’s Commissar for domestic affairs. Yagoda evidently appeared to be not cognizant speaking about debunking of Trotsky—Zinoviev coalition. OGPU was four years behind time . All the workers and most of regional representatives of NKVD (People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs) (author emphasized)» [5, p. 32].

In the resolution of February—March plenum of the CC of All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks in 1937 according to report of N.Ezhov «Lessons of sabotage, diversions and espionage of Japanese-German-Trotsky agents» this telegraph arrangement acquired the strength of party act. Mass repressions must compensate «four-year lateness». Moreover, on this plenum Stalin formulated more strictly thesis on sharpening of class struggle in measures of «ahead to social-ism» promotion 11. In June 2, 1937, CC AUCP (b) suggested to regional committees of party in five days to introduce «…composition of three people, as well as number of those, who came under execution and number of those, who came under expulsion» [6].

Mass repressions began in the capital of the North after arrival in the beginning of September 1937 of new head of NKVD department in the Arkhangelsk region V.F.Dementiev. But a special range in Arkhangelsk, Vologda and Syktyvkar they achieved after the visit of the CC AUCP (b) secretary A.A.Andreev and handled by him in November, 4-5 of Arkhangelsk regional commit- tee plenum. More detailed these events were described in the book «Repressions in Arkhangelsk.

Documents and materials», published under the editorship of R.A.Hantalin in 1999 [7].

Announcing the first Arkhangelsk regional party conference on June, 15, 1938, a new secretary of the CC AUCP (b) regional committee A.F.Nikonorov, also later victimized, said: «Enemies, anyhow they disguised, anywhere they hid, anyway were overtaken by the bright searchlight of Stalinist directions and were caught red-handed by our great Soviet reconnaissance headed by the best Stalinist — People’s commissar of NKVD Ezhov Nikolai Ivanovich. Bandits, killers, incendiaries, intelligencers, diversionists were revealed, destroyed and will be destroyed in the most pitiless way, because when destroying all scoundrels and villains, …our party clear conditions for mighty growth of communism, when destroying agents of fascism, it performs big deals of all the modern man-kind»12. Head of the Arkhangelsk department of NKVD V.F.Dementiev in his aspiration to make the capital of the North as «unassailable fortress of socialism» spoke even more figurative: «To scrape out from these holes everyone to a man, to the last filthy little toad, to scrape out and to find out» [8, p. 55].

New wave of terror in a great measure repeated the practice of «great» breakdown. But when at those times the main strike was mounted at proprietors and their defenders, now a new excellent way of struggle with «enemies and sabotage» was founded. Excellent in the way that much of done during the prior period, as we had already noticed, could be really be referred to wide interpretation of the word «sabotage».

And as feeling instability and ambiguity of accusations to the address of regional heads, who executed will of the center, heads of the party tried to live in an ivory tower. During party and Soviet forums, judicial processes and in mass media the idea was suggested, that local politics of the party Central Committee, which was consciously blemished, was presented as the working people's party’s platform, «…they curved the man so to make everything to the contrary»13. We can understand in what difficult situation were northerners, who were hold in conditions to search for enemies among the former idols. Strength of Stalin and his circle involved rude manipulations with truth and falsehood. Northern men were again curved, they were despoiled any orientation, except absolute obedience to the will of one power holder — Stalin.

Scaffold or dissimulation — here is the logic of totalitarianism

It was really difficult for a normal person to survive in such a situation, logic of repressions led either to scaffold or to dissimulation and leg-pulling. Here is characteristic speaking engagement of the Nenets district party committee secretary Koltakov at the VIIth plenum of the AUCP (b) Arkhangelsk regional committee in March, 16, 1939: «The former enemy heads, who during a long time operated in the region, anyway didn’t pay enough attention to development of reindeer breeding. For example, development of reindeer breeding wasn’t planned. Plan of development of reindeer breeding didn’t exist, wasn’t given to collective farm workers, but there was a plan of killing, that means that instead of development killing was planned, reduction and cutback of reindeer breeding»14.

«Evidently, the truth must be proved just by spoils», — justifiably wrote made away with himself chairman of the Nenets regional consumer's association Kozharin Ivan Matveevich, who was excluded from All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) «for relations with foreign class elements, for obstruction of machinery by strangers»15.

It’s real, that in those conditions just the very few people found energy to stay honest men, to maintain their attitude, as it was done by secretary of the Nenets district committee of the party Arkadii Dmitrievich Evsugin [8, pp. 131—142], or one of the brightest representatives of Arkhangelsk intellectuals of those years Andrei Andreevich Evdokimov. His published communication with his family once again underlines power of the human spirit of one of the brightest representatives of Arkhangelsk intellectuals and at the same time absolute inhumanity of repressions’ facilitators [9].

Persecution, mass destroy of «public enemies» led not just to reduction of common skill level of northerners, but to elementary deficit of qualified specialists and leaders. During two last months of 1937 in Arkhangelsk were arrested more than 1100 of leading employees [8, p. 24]. Practically two hundred people were convicted in Syktyvkar after the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) plenum of Komi regional committee in November, 1-2, 1937 [10, p. 244]. In 1937-1938 for critical activity were proposed about four thousand people instead of victimized. And these were just first victims of terror in the North. Later in the regional office of Federal Security Department in the Arkhangelsk region there were rehabilitated more than 21 thousand people [8, pp. 56, 65].

In Arkhangelsk, as well as in Vologda and Syktyvkar regional leaders were beheaded. In report for Stalin «On situation and work of party organization» from November 27, 1937, in three weeks after the beginning of his leadership in the Arkhangelsk Regional Committee and in State Committee of party, A.Nikanorov wrote: «It is not worth speaking about difficulties of work, as Central Committee know about it. I would just report following: in the Regional Committee there just two department supervisors, and no one. Regional Executive Committee is simply empty, there is no one who control forest trusts, as all of them are arrested» [2, p. 287]. (author emphasized).

By the end of 1938, announcing Stalin of employment policy state, Nikonorov wrote: from 119 secretaries — first, second and third — 111 have been working as secretaries for one year and less» [5, 57]. Certainly, such an employment policy could not but had negative impact on development of the region. Plan of timber harvesting of 1938 was fulfilled just for 56%, of timber hauling just for 65%; in 1939 it wasn’t better. First secretary of AUCP (b) Arkhangelsk Regional Committee A.Nikanorov was removed from his post «for unsatisfactory leadership of timber harvesting» and in 1940 he was victimized. In the decision of the plenum of the AUCP (b) Regional Committee in February, 26, 1939, it was noticed, that together with unsatisfactory leadership of timber industry «…Regional Committee office didn’t organize the true Bolshevistic struggle on liquidation of sabotage consequences in timber industry»16.

In March 1939 during the XVIIIth meeting of the party repressive practice in the North was criticized, but indirectly. Facilitators, or to be more right, performers, as well as ascetics of «great» breakdown, became also «public enemies». It has emerged that «destruction of party apparatus was planned for subversive activities»17 (but not of their superior fathers. — S.Sh.). Hypocrisy of the party leaders and ready for new campaigns in the spirit of previous ones was evident. It is enough to open the history of any other region of the country to understand it. CC secretary A.Andreev not long before his arrival to Arkhangelsk «gave a start» to repressions during the plenum of AUCP(b) Regional Committee in Kuibyshev, where he, particularly, announced: «CC thinks, that we have no struggle with enemies, we must just mobilize Kuibyshev party organization to expose enemies». About the atmosphere which was after this in Kuibyshev Regional party Organization is witnessed during report of G.M.Malenkov at the plenum of CC: «Nobody in the Regional Committee knew how many District Committees were disbanded: firstly they told about 13, than about 20, and when they were told that 30 District Committees were disbanded, they were surprised. And now it appears that there were disbanded 34» [11, pp. 25—27].

Conclusion

Horrification, terror, repressions were considered to be ways of society suppression, providing unity and cohesion in condition of NeoNEP abeyancy in the second half of 1930s and in 1920—30s. In such a way, the formed top party-state nomenklatura became leading-privileged class and at the same time it cramped other social classes to express themselves both socially and regionally; it didn’t stop achieving their goals any length.

Especially difficult in this inside war was for a North, because peculiar for its people senses of validity, lenity, compassion and love to each other were supported with lack of suspiciousness and leadership credibility. Repressions became the so called test for revelation and destroying of genius. Pomor high blood, as noticed D.S.Lihachev, in Northerners, was losing. Consequences of this process had an impact on development not of our region, but of the whole country.

Mass repressions against nomenklatura, which were restarted by Stalin in 1937—1938, helped him again in a Machiavellian way to find common enemy of the chief and people, who in his core doesn’t feel socialism. «To rule the great, led to nothingness general population — who hates the leadership — is impossible without introducing class division of this mass, — fairly wrote one of the wisest foreign Russians of those times G.P.Fedotov» [12, p. 352]. Viktor Topolyanski in «Common newspaper» rightly noticed that «in the leadership of the party and earlier found «pub-lic enemies». But they were firstly accused not in «antiparty activities, but in sabotage and espio-nage», thus in antinational activities [13].

But it didn’t succeed to achieve unity in the Soviet society short before the Great Patriotic War. About it bespeak declassified reports of OGPU regional government¹⁸. The outside great was can be considered to be the rescue of Stalinist nomenklatura socialism, based on the inside war. But for victory Stalin had to scramble to the true Russian ideals of Motherland through antinational regime. We know too little about the degree of Soviet society unity before 1941. And «head of all the nations» felt it best of all, who lost his head during the first years of war not from its sudden beginning but from diffidence in his people, which he couldn’t feel preceding the war years. It could explain, to our mind, backwardness of Stalin’s radio message, and unusually heartfelt words to his people in July, 3, 1941: «Comrades! Natives! Brothers and sisters! Fighters of our army and fleet!» (author emphasized) [14, p. 13].

About it provides strong evidence a famous chin-chin for confidence of Russian people to leadership and to himself during the zero hour of Great Patriotic War, which was told by Stalin at levee in the Kremlin in honor of commanders of the Red Army troops in May, 24, 194519.