The Arctic States’ cooperation on emergency situations prevention and search and rescue operations: problems and prospects

Along with environmental and humanitarian themes, cooperation Arctic states (PAG) in the prevention of emergencies (PCHS) and search and rescue (AKP) has become one of the most im--‐ portant areas of their interaction in recent years. Conceptually, this was further evidence of the displacement of the "center of gravity" of the regional policy issues from a "hard" (military) to "soft" (non--‐military) security [1; 5].

The following factors contributed to the intensification of the cooperation in the field of PAG PCHS and the AKP. Melting of the polar ice and lengthening the sailing season resulted in in--‐ creased intensity of transport Arctic sea routes, primarily the Northern Sea Route (NSR), and in the future of the Northwest Passage (FFP) that are controlled, respectively, Russia and Canada. More--‐ over, the volume of cargo on these routes will grow rapidly. Only China plans by 2020 from 5 to 15% of the external cargo carry on SMP [11]. Growth of maritime transport inevitably entails the risk of such emergencies as wrecked ships (or rubbing ice), spill oil or other hazardous substances from entering into the Arctic marine environment. Given the fragility of the Arctic ecosystems, the effects of such disasters will be much more severe than in other regions of the planet . So , after the oil spill in Alaska in Prince William ship Exxon Valdez, owned by U.S. company Exxon (1989), nature has suffered such damage that the populations of many species of birds, fish and animals have not recovered to date. The fact that in polar conditions spilled oil naturally decomposed by bacteria much longer than in the southern latitudes, and the restoration of Arctic Flora and Fauna is slower due to a longer cycle of generational change. According to the World Wildlife Fund, by 2005 it was found that after 15 years of oil in the coastal strip Prince William is only slightly weathered. Scientists predict that this oil and keep toxic properties, can remain in the soil for dec--‐ ades yet [4, p. 11].

Prevention of such disasters and the fight with the consequences of the international im--‐ portance, requires effort not one, but at least several countries.

Climate change, as well as progress in aviation and communication technologies leads to increased cross--‐polar air market which is growing 4 times faster than conventional air [2]. In order to make these routes safer, countries involved in such traffic ( primarily Russia, Canada and the U.S.) should not only develop navigation and other ground infrastructure, but also take care of creation and / or the development of the search and rescue services (MSS), as well as establishing cooperation between different countries MSS. Should also be noted that even in avia flights seem--‐ ingly well established the Arctic regions fraught with many risks.

Not only the increase in the traffic, but in general the expansion of the economic activity in the Far North also entails increased environmental risks. For example, Norway and Russia in the near future are going to start oil and gas production in the Arctic shelf, although completely safe for this technology does not exist yet. So, one of the major reasons that continually delayed start of drilling on the newly built oil rig in the Kara Sea ( field "Prirazlomnoe") is the lack of reliable guarantees from the "Gazprom Neft", which is the owner of this object. The continued expansion of oil and gas on land, as well as the mining industry in the polar regions of the Arctic states are also fraught with man--‐made disasters (and very different types --‐ from getting toxics in the envi--‐ ronment before the explosions and flooding in the mines), which also requires the establishment of a system of the early prevention and rapid response disaster.

In recent years, actively developing the Arctic tourism, which is also related to climate warming in the north of the planet and the greater availability of the polar regions. So, according to the Greenland authorities annually from 40 to 50 cruise ships visit the coastal waters of the is--‐ land. [21] "Boom" Arctic tourism has its "by--‐product" growth risks for tourist ships, for travel tak--‐ ing place in an area where particularly active form icebergs. For example, for the Danish authori--‐ ties have always remembered the case of passenger--‐transport ship Hans Hedtoft, which disap--‐ peared without a trace after hitting an iceberg south of Greenland in 1959, in turn, these risks pose problems for local MSS who need to strengthen their material and technical base and staff--‐ ing.

The objectives of this study include, first, the analysis of the international legal framework for cooperation in the field of PAG PCHS and SDP; Secondly, the study of the experience of such cooperation at bilateral and multilateral levels; Third, develop proposals to improve this interac--‐ tion in terms of Russian national interests.

International--‐juridacal basements of cooperation

International legal basis for the cooperation in the field of PCHS and the AKP in the Arctic before the conclusion of regional agreements is the number of the documents the universal char--‐ acter: the Convention on International Civil Aviation 1944 (Chicago Convention), the Internationa Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue at Sea in 1979, the International Convention concern--‐ ing intervention on the High seas in Cases of the accidents leading to oil pollution in 1969, Interna--‐ tional Convention for Preparedness Oil Pollution and Cooperation in 1990, the International Con--‐ vention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1992, International Convention on the Estab--‐ lishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1992, Internationa Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from ships, 1973 - 1978, as amended (MARPOL) and the International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution 2001.

However, the Convention does not fully take into account the specificity of the interaction of PAH in PCHS and the AKP, and matured over time because the need for special arrangements of a regional nature. Formation of the regional international legal framework for the cooperation in the field of CNCP went in two directions --‐ the conclusion, both bilateral and multilateral agree--‐ ments.

Creating a legal framework for bilateral cooperation began with, because, on the one hand, it is obvious the need for more than the need for multilateral cooperation, and on the other --‐ the development of such agreements is technically simpler than the conclusion of agreements directly between the several states.

Bilateral agreements . Russia has agreements in PCHS and SEP (or close meaning spheres) with the majority of PAH, often from the Soviet era.

Russia — USA . Signed in 1972 between the Soviet Union and the United States agreement on cooperation in the field of the environmental protection laid the legal foundation for the two countries' cooperation in this field. Objectives of such cooperation, according to Art. 2 of the Agreement --‐ the development of measures to prevent pollution, the study of pollution and its ef--‐ fects on the environment. Been identified eleven areas of implementation, including the preven--‐ tion of pollution of air, water, seas, as well as pollution of the medium associated with agricultura activities; improvement of the urban environment; organization and protection of nature reserves; biological and genetic effects of environmental pollution; climate change; earthquake prediction; arctic and subarctic ecosystems; legislation and regulation in the field of environmental protec--‐ tion. Under the Agreement in 1972, workshops were conducted working groups on each of the areas, the exchange of information and experts, joint research, bilateral conferences, etc. [3, p. 9].;

The importance of this agreement at the time was that the Soviet Union and the United States as a major world powers have recognized the need to cooperate in the field of environmen--‐ tal protection. Own development and conclusion of the agreement were significant result of the progressive development of international environmental law: at the time the Agreement in 1972 represented the most profound in content bilateral treaties concerning the protection of the envi--‐ ronment. Being a model of successful international cooperation at the bilateral level, this agree--‐ ment was subsequently used as the basis of other similar bilateral agreements between other states. Carried out under the Agreement and work contributed to actively engage the parties on international markets in the development of universal environmental conventions (such as the Convention on Long--‐range Transboundary Air Pollution 1979 Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer in 1985, etc.). Furthermore, it was the beginning of the discussion of bilateral agree--‐ ments on pollution control in the Bering and Chukchi seas.

After the collapse of the USSR hand, given the mutual interests and experience gained dur--‐ ing the implementation of the Agreement in 1972, prepared an updated version--‐Agreement be--‐ tween the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the United States of America on cooperation in the field of the environment and natural resources, which was con--‐ cluded in 1994 1994 Agreement extends the scope of cooperation between the U.S. and Russia in this area reflects the results of the development of the international environmental law over the past twenty years [3, p.10].

His novel was an important position, according to which the parties have agreed to jointly develop a mutually agreed policy in the field of the environment and natural resources at the bi--‐ lateral, regional and global levels. Areas of the cooperation enshrined in addition to the Agree--‐ ment of 1972, also include the assessment of the impact on the environment, technology, digita mapping, GIS technology and remote sensing to meet the challenges of the environmental protec--‐ tion, energy saving measures and alternative energy sources, environmental emergencies, envi--‐ ronmental monitoring, etc (Article 2) .

Statement of the activities and programs of the cooperation, coordination of those in--‐ volved, as well as other issues related to the implementation of the Agreement in 1994, is engaged in the US--‐Russian Joint Commission on Cooperation in the field of environment and natural re--‐ sources. 1994 Agreement provides the basis for improving the interaction between U.S. agencies and the relevant services of Russia on some key environmental issues in the Arctic.

The agreement between the USSR and the USA on the cooperation in combating pollution in the Bering and Chukchi Seas in emergencies 1989 provides mutual aid in combating pollution incidents in the marine environment within the territorial area of responsibility. Area of the re--‐ sponsibility are areas of the Bering and Chukchi seas included in the internal and the territorial wa--‐ ters of each of the parties, and " marine area beyond the territorial sea, in which the Party exer--‐ cises sovereign rights and jurisdiction in accordance with international law " (Article 2)1. In order to implement the Agreement designated competent authorities of the Parties shall develop and ap--‐ prove a joint plan of emergency measures in case of pollution. Such a plan was accepted and regu--‐ larly updated in 2001--‐2011.

Russia — Canada . Specific bilateral legal mechanism exists in the Russian--‐Canadian rela--‐ tions. In 1989 he signed a Memorandum of Understanding on the cooperation in the prevention and the control of pollution of the marine environment of the Arctic 1989 Memorandum develops the legal framework of cooperation between the two states in cases of marine pollution from ves--‐ sels in ice--‐covered areas, as such areas are defined in Art. 234 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 Areas of cooperation include here information and experience exchange, technology transfer, responding to incidents, Pollution [3, p . 8]

In accordance with the Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Canada on Cooperation for Environment in 1993, which replaced the corre--‐ sponding agreement between the USSR and Canada in 1989, reaffirmed the principles of sustaina--‐ ble development enshrined cooperation aimed at protecting the environment in the region: the protection of the marine environment and freshwater; conservation of ecosystems, including the establishment of protected areas; response to emergency situations that may lead to negative en--‐ vironmental impacts.

Development and implementation of the programs of the cooperation mandated Canada--‐ Russia Joint Commission on the Environment, the creation of which was provided by the agree--‐ ment in 1993.

Russia — Norway . Russian--‐Norwegian cooperation in the field PCHS began with the Agreement on the prevention of incidents at sea outside the territorial waters in 1990 ². However, the most significant is the agreement between Norway and Russia on cooperation in combating oi pollution in the Barents Sea in 1994, which deals with pollution of the marine environment by oi from any source. It corresponds to the International Convention for the readiness of oil pollution, Response and Co--‐operation in 1990 and develops its legal mechanisms. Acts between the parties joint contingency plan in case of pollution (2002), adopted in the framework of this agreement.

However, the most significant is the agreement between Norway and Russia on coopera--‐ tion in combating oil pollution in the Barents Sea in 1994, which deals with pollution of the marine environment by oil from any source. It corresponds to the International Convention for the readi--‐ ness of oil pollution, Response and Co--‐operation in 1990 and develops its legal mechanisms. Acts between the parties joint contingency plan in case of pollution (2002), adopted in the framework of this agreement.

Russia — Denmark . Legal framework in the field of PCHS and AKP in Russian--‐ Danish rela--‐ tions is the least developed . At the bilateral level, the legal basis for the cooperation in the field of PCHS is agreement in the field of environmental protection in 1993 It emphasis on the commit--‐ ment of the Parties to the overall objectives of the environmental protection in the Arctic. The Treaty is a broad legal framework for cooperation in the field of protection of the atmosphere from pollution, environmental matters of energy, protection of the marine environment from pol--‐ lution, environmental monitoring, assessment of the impact on the environment, as well as in other directions . Both sides prefer regional format (AU and the Barents Euro--‐Arctic Council --‐ BEAC) for the development of the cooperation in the sphere of PCHS and the AKP.

Russia — Finland . Between the two countries do not have special agreements PCHS in the Arctic, but there are similar arrangements for the Baltic: Agreement between the Government of the USSR and the Government of the Republic of Finland on cooperation in combating pollution of the Baltic Sea by oil and other harmful substances in emergency situations in 1989 and the Joint Russian--‐Finnish emergency plan to combat pollution of the Baltic sea in 2003.

USA and Canada . It should be noted that Russia is one of the most "advanced" countries in terms of PAH formation bilateral international legal framework for the cooperation in the field of PCHS and the AKP. Other PAG were not as active in the development and conclusion of appropri--‐ ate bilateral agreements with neighboring countries. For example, paradoxically, but until relative--‐ ly recently, cooperation between the two neighbors and closest NATO allies --‐ the United States and Canada --‐ did not apply to the scope of PCHS and the AKP. Only December 11, 2012 signed two agreements Canada--‐US: on cooperation between the U.S. Northern Command (United States Northern Command, USNORTHCOM), the Canadian joint operational command (Canadian Joint Operations Command, CJOC) and the North American Aerospace Command of Defence (North American Aerospace Defense Command, NORAD) [ 26] and joint training and exercises in the Arc--‐ tic [27]. Along with purely military tasks , one of the most important areas of the Canadian--‐ Ameri--‐ can cooperation was interaction between the two countries in the field of the AKP in the Arctic and training for this purpose [9]. Ottawa also has an agreement with Copenhagen on protection against pollution of ocean space between Canada and Greenland ( 1983 )³.

Multilateral agreements . In 1971 was concluded between the Copenhagen Agreement on the Prevention of Marine Pollution (completed in 1993) ⁴.

Plans to expand the "Nordic" cooperation were proclaimed in the so--‐called "Stoltenberg report" on the overall Arctic policy of the Nordic countries (2009). However, in terms of financia and economic crisis to implement these ideas failed. In addition, these plans look like duplication of relevant initiatives under the AU and the BEAC, it is unlikely that it was permissible for the "Nordic Five" as a political and, especially, financial and economic points of view.

Functions in PCHS and AKP in the Arctic trying to take over and NATO. In 2009, in Reykjavik, NATO leaders announced that the Arctic alliance will take on "soft security", including search and rescue missions, as well as the elimination of the consequences of the various emergency situa--‐ tions [24]. These plans, however, have not been developed due to the fact that a number of mem--‐ bers (primarily Canada) did not wish involvement of NATO in the Arctic case , believing that the activation of this military--‐political bloc in the Far North will undermine other regional institutions (first of all, "child" Ottawa --‐ AS, in which creation in 1996 Canadian diplomacy played a key role).

Significant step towards cooperation in the field of PAG PCHS and AKP was concluded un--‐ der the auspices of the BEAC chennoe December 11, 2008 Agreement on Cooperation in the field of prevention, preparedness and response to emergencies5. Parties have established a joint com--‐ mittee for the implementation of this agreement and have appointed him their representatives. Chairmanship of the committee is based on the annual rotation in alphabetical order. The Joint Committee shall meet annually, or as necessary for the planning and coordination of the coopera--‐ tion, as well as evaluation of the implementation of this agreement. The Committee is also the ini--‐ tiator and participant of planned exercises, joint training and organizes the exchange of experts. The parties have appointed contact points acting 24 hours a day, for notices and requests for as--‐ sistance in the event of an emergency. The Agreement was defined notification procedure sea, air, nuclear and radiological emergencies and assist in distress side. The document also regulated the issues of compensation expense sides during the operation on emergency response and security of those transactions.

Undoubted advantage of this agreement is that it applies to all types of emergencies and not only at sea but also on land and in the air. At the same time, it was concluded only four states (not even all the members of the BEAC), which are included in the Barents Sea region (Russia, Norway, Finland and Sweden), ie, concerned not all PAG and the need for an agreement, covering wider range of Arctic countries, not anymore.

Currently, despite the attempts of other international organizations and forums to assume the functions of coordination in the field of interaction PAG PCHS and the AKP in the Arctic, the main role in multilateral cooperation in this field still belongs to the AU. This is because the speak--‐ er is more representative forum than other international institutions, and includes all the PAG. In particular, unlike the BEAC, AC includes such important "players" Arctic policy, the United States and Canada.

The development of the international legal framework in the field of PCHS and SDP within the AU is relatively recent. At the sixth session of the AU Ministerial in Tromsø in 2009 it was de--‐ cided to establish a task force for the organization and completion of negotiations on an interna--‐ tional instrument on cooperation in the search and rescue operations in the Arctic. The next step was the signing in 2011 of the Agreement on Cooperation on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic (AMPS).

The Agreement was established areas of the responsibility for the conduct of the AKP in the Arctic for each PAH (see Fig. 1), and identified national competent authorities and rescue co--‐ ordination centers (RCCs) in each country. PAG Agreement signatories pledged to exchange infor--‐ mation about their opportunities in the AKP come to help each other in case of inability to cope with the problem and carry out joint exercises in the framework of AMPS [6].

The Agreement was established areas of the responsibility for the conduct of the AKP in the Arctic for each PAH (see Fig. 1), and identified national competent authorities and rescue co--‐ ordination centers (RCCs) in each country. PAG Agreement signatories pledged to exchange infor--‐ mation about their opportunities in the AKP come to help each other in case of inability to cope with the problem and carry out joint exercises in the framework of AMPS [6].

It should be noted that the AMPS met a mixed reaction in some PAG . As the Canadian ex--‐ pert Andrea Sharon from eight member countries of the AU five are members of NATO, and most of them are responsible for the AKP military departments that are not very willing to share infor--‐ mation about its potential in the field of SDP and are not inclined to practical cooperation with non--‐NATO MSS PAG (Russia, Finland and Sweden) [10]. Another Canadian expert Stephen Daly doubt that the technical equipment of the Canadian MSS will allow them to effectively fulfill their pledges of AMPS. Conservative, the government of Canada does not want to increase budget ex--‐ penditures for this purpose [13].

At the seventh session of the AU Ministerial (Nuuk , May 2011) it was decided to establish a task force to develop an international instrument in the field of preparedness and response to ma--‐ rine pollution by oil in the Arctic. May 15, 2013 at the ministerial meeting in Kiruna AS signed an agreement on cooperation in the field of preparedness and response to the marine pollution by oi in the Arctic [7]. The value of this agreement is difficult to overestimate, because, as already not--‐ ed, the risks of the oil spill in the Arctic conditions are very high and not well understood, and the duration of the effects of the devastating impact on the human environment, flora and fauna.

Pic. 1. The sectors PAG and the responsibility

In accordance with the Agreement, the parties shall be: 1) placed in predetermined loca--‐ tions a minimum amount of equipment to deal with oil spills (BRN), corresponding to the existing risk and adopt programs for its use; 2 ) Develop a program of the exercises for the organizations to respond to oil pollution and training of relevant personnel; 3) have plans and means of communi--‐ cation for the responding to pollution incidents by oil; 4) a mechanism or arrangement to coordi--‐ nate incident response, causing oil pollution, with the possibility, if necessary, to mobilize the nec--‐ essary resources.

PAG--‐ signers of the agreement should also establish a national system for the rapid and ef--‐ fective response to pollution incidents by oil, which should include 1) the competent national au--‐ thority or authorities responsible for the preparedness and response to oil pollution, 2) nationa non--‐stop operational point or points of the connection responsible for receiving and transmitting messages about oil pollution and 3) the body or bodies entitled on behalf of the parties to seek help or take the decision to provide the assistance requested.

If one of the parties to the agreement receives information about a possible oil pollution or oil pollution, it should assess 1) the event in order to determine whether it is a pollution incident oil, 2) the nature, scope and possible consequences of the incident, including determination of its possible sources, and then 3) promptly inform all States whose interests are affected or may be affected by such an incident.

The parties also pledged to set up a monitoring system to detect incidents of oil pollution in the areas under its jurisdiction and, to the extent possible, in adjacent areas outside the jurisdic--‐ tion of any State. Participants in the agreement may request assistance from any party (or parties) to respond to the incident, causing oil pollution. This assistance may include advisory services, technical support, equipment or personnel. After conducting a joint operation carried out her hand joint analysis .

Contract provides regular implementation of joint training and exercises, including drills warning or call transfer, command post exercises, equipment deployment exercises and other ap--‐ propriate action.

The document contains a draft application as a practical guide which aims at facilitating the implementation of this agreement. This guide covers the following issues: 1) the system formats and notification requests for assistance and other relevant information; 2 ) assisting , as well as coordination and cooperation in response operations involving more than one party, including in areas outside the jurisdiction of any State; 3) the transboundary movement and disposal of re--‐ sources; 4) procedures for conducting joint operations parse response to incidents of oil pollution; 5) procedures for conducting joint exercises and training; 6) reimbursement of costs associated with the provision of assistance.

At the same time, we must pay attention to the weaknesses frankly agreement. So, the whole document is very general in nature and is essentially more like a letter of intent than a full--‐ fledged international treaty. Specific shape and depth of the agreement are left to the discretion of member states. All specifics displayed in the application, most of which immediately declared an optional part of the agreement, subject to agreement on the permanent voluntary parties to the agreement. This applies, above all, the most basic applications --‐ a practical guide, which should be spelled out concrete steps to implement the agreement . The preamble to the manual states that it " is not legally binding " [7, p. 135]. Proposed forms of documents relating to notification procedures and request assistance of the management and control for operations on disaster management, conduct joint training and exercises, administrative matters, etc., are exemplary and recommendations.

Because of thesignificant differences in the organization of a national system to respond quickly to incidents of oil pollution ( in some countries for all functions correspond to the same authorities, in other --‐ different, in some countries, fighting spilled oil and other emergencies --‐ the jurisdiction of the military and paramilitary bodies in others --‐ especially civilian agencies ) do not understand the procedure for the notification of the incidents and requests for assistance organi--‐ zation. For example, from the text of the document itself and the Practical Guide unclear who ini--‐ tiates the alarm about the oil spill detected and notifies the other side of the incident. It seems that, logically, it should be operational around the clock National points of contact, which must first receive information about incidents. However, based on the recommendations contained in the Practical Guide, it seems that the documents should be drawn up for notification or the com--‐ petent national authorities responsible for preparedness and response to oil pollution or bodies entitled on behalf of the parties to seek help.

Moreover, the notification documents and requesting assistance are so complex that in practice such bureaucratic procedures can result in the loss of precious time. Recall also that the preparation of such documents and notifications and requests for help and assistance --‐ it's strictly voluntary, which casts doubt on the parties declared binding nature of this agreement.

It seems that, logically, it should be operational around the clock National points of the contact, which must first receive information about incidents. However, based on the recommen--‐ dations contained in the Practical Guide, it seems that the documents should be drawn up for noti--‐ fication or the competent national authorities responsible for preparedness and response to oi pollution or bodies entitled on behalf of the parties to seek help.

The document is actually not established the mechanism responsible for the damage caused. It deals only for reimbursement of the expenses incurred in aid. With regard to the pollut--‐ er pays, the agreement contains a reference to an unnamed international conventions on this is--‐ sue and the national legislation of the signatory countries of the agreement. With regard to the latter, not all PAG have national laws of the mechanism, damages the oil. So, Russia is currently without adequate legal framework on this issue and at the same time taking the path of opening the Northern Sea muti for international commercial air transport, in fact, become unable to punish the spilled oil (especially from foreign shipping companies) and ask them to damages. And it was part of the Russian Arctic will be used particularly active in the terms of the transportation of oi and oil products, and, accordingly, its share will have the largest number of risks associated with this activity.

The document also says nothing about the mechanism of security risks associated with the oil spilled and their liquidation. In connection with the foregoing, there are doubts about the ef--‐ fectiveness of this document and its compliance with the challenges and threats that in the near future will face CNCP in theconnection with the ongoing intensification of the economic activity in the Arctic. Document clearly prepared in a hurry, many of its provisions crudity and need to be improved and expanded.

Note that this agreement is designed for CNCP readiness to respond to emergencies have occurred . More important question --‐ how to prevent oil spills --‐ it does not touch. PAG aware of the necessity of the developing and concluding such an agreement, and as part of the AU has al--‐ ready begun preliminary work in this direction. As noted in the program of the Canadian presiden--‐ cy of the AU, the work on the preparation of the agreements on the prevention of spilled oil wil continue. The priorities of the Canadian presidency also includes the development of traffic rules in the Arctic tourism and cruise ships . [14]

Practice of cooperation

In the Arctic states, including Russia, while modest experience gained practical Coulomb in--‐ teraction in PCHS and the AKP. Basically it is to carry out joint exercises in this area both in bilat--‐ eral and multilateral formats.

Bilateral cooperation. Since 1994, Russia and Norway hold annual joint exercises in the Barents Sea. For example, in 2012 the teachings included cleanup of contamination coastline and towing operations in the open sea. True, according to the Norwegian side, the Russian ships for unknown reasons did not participate in the maneuvers. [23] On the Russian side in the exercises usually participates Sea SCC (Murmansk), Norwegian --‐ Joint SCC (Buda). Manual exercises shall be held alternately by representatives of the center. Exercises regularly visited by representatives of the Arctic Council, which is usually timed to this time holding a workshop [15]. At a seminar in 2012 representatives of multinational energy companies ExxonMobil and ENI, which plans to raise the Norwegian side to develop oil and gas resources in the Barents Sea, presented their programs BRN in the Arctic.

From 1990s. Russia, the United States and Canada regularly hold joint exercises in the AKP codenamed SAREX. Are traditional teachings rescue crews of the ships in distress. However, in Au--‐ gust 2000 in the northern regions of Russia took unconventional joint exercises in the AKP to res--‐ cue the crew of the landing of space vehicles, freelance landed on the water in the northern lati--‐ tudes [12].

An important part of bilateral cooperation in the field of PCHS and the AKP is the presence of each of the parties adequate capacity to conduct operations in this area. In recent years, Russia is a lot of work to create a similar capacity in the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation (Russian Arctic). For example, active elements are global positioning system GLONASS / GPS (Deer Island, the Pole, Kamenka, Cape Sterligova; estuary Indigirka). 2020 is planned to provide navigation along the Northern Sea Route. In the future, the Russian system is capable of becoming part of a global search and rescue system in the entire Arctic.

NBER. Established in accordance with the agreement on PCHS and AKP in the Barents Re--‐ gion in 2008 the Joint Committee on Cooperation in the Barents Rescue (Joint Committee on Res--‐ cue Cooperation in the Barents Region) is a key link in the PAG cooperation in this field. The Joint Committee has developed guidance on rescue NIJ in the Barents region, which was tested during the "field" exercises⁶. Regular joint exercises in the Barents cooperation (Barents Rescue) began in 2001, when Sweden held the first exercise of this kind. Subsequently, the exercises were held in Norway (2005), Finland ( 2007), Russia (2009) and again in Sweden (2011). Confined by time teach--‐ ing, usually by the end of the presidency of a country in the BEAC, which becomes the "hostess" exercises. The first exercise was held in the format of the NATO program "Partnership for Peace". Then the parties to the agreement on cooperation in preventing a preparedness and emergency response in 2008 was developed proprietary format exercises.

After the first agreement in 2008 held exercises in Russia, which took place in the Mur--‐ mansk Region 8--‐10 September 2009 The structure of groups of trainees were 384 attendees. and 77 units. Staff participated in the preparation and conduct of teaching was 2384 people. and 192 units. In the exercise involved six aircraft and 30 ships, vessels and other vessels [8, p . 17]. Exer--‐ cise scenario included five themes: 1) the fight against the effects of radioactive contamination arising from falling uncontrolled aircraft on radioactive waste storage facility at Andreeva Bay; 2) operation of the search and rescue teams of the sunken ship in the Barents Sea ; 3) liquidation of the consequences of an accident on the federal highway "Kola" involving a bus with foreign tour--‐ ists , cars and special vehicles transporting radioactive cargo ( in connection with which there was a threat of radioactive contamination ); 4) joint Finnish--‐Russian action to extinguish a forest fire in the border area of the Murmansk region ; 5) struggle with the consequences of emergency situa--‐ tions arising in the Kola Bay in a collision with a shuttle tanker Floaters "Belokamenka", including fire--‐fighting on storage and elimination of an oil spill. Parties who participated in the teaching, ap--‐ preciated the experience of joint actions to simulate rescue operations and, at the same time, re--‐ vealed many weaknesses in the system of planning and management of the course exercises, mu--‐ tual notification, as well as in the process of joint action "in the field "rescue teams from different countries.

In 2011, the car accident in a tunnel Letsie (the fire); collision with a truck am moniem passen--‐ ger bus; wreck in the port Lula (capital of province Norrbotten) with a plurality of passengers fall--‐ ing overboard; fire in the engine compartment in the port icebreaker Atle Lula [16]. According to the Swedish side, which took place on the territory of teaching exercise scenario was created based on real events. So, shortly before the described exercises at the dam on the river Ume in neighboring Norrbotten Västerbotten was leaking water, and during the operation to eliminate the disaster killed one of the rescuers. At the same time, a number of participants in these exer--‐ cises (especially Russian) was displeased that was clearly noticeable "roll" towards the command post exercises, seminars and theoretical discussions, and not in the direction of practical working of Action MSS different countries. So, shortly before the described exercises at the dam on the riv--‐ er Ume in neighboring Norrbotten Västerbotten was leaking water, and during the operation to eliminate the disaster killed one of the rescuers. At the same time, a number of participants in these exercises (especially Russian) was displeased that was clearly noticeable "roll" towards the command post exercises, seminars and theoretical discussions, and not in the direction of practica working of Action MSS different countries. So, shortly before the described exercises at the dam on the river Ume in neighboring Norrbotten Västerbotten was leaking water, and during the oper--‐ ation to eliminate the disaster killed one of the rescuers. At the same time, a number of partici--‐ pants in these exercises (especially Russian) was displeased that was clearly noticeable "roll" to--‐ wards the command post exercises, seminars and theoretical discussions, and not in the direction of practical working of Action MSS different countries.

According to the scenario, [19], on the mountain Nornes , located on the shore of Kåfjord should happen giant landslide. This will require the evacuation of three settlements. During the evacuation tunnel Pollfel accident should happed, it caused partial destruction and fire. According to the scenario, the landslide also create a 45--‐ meter tsunami that washed away section of Euro--‐ pean route E--‐6 that runs along the coast, and the nearby youth camp. Since the exercise area is located close to the junction of the borders of Norway, Sweden and Finland, the AKP took part in primarily rescuers from these countries. Russia was represented by: National Center for Crisis

Management MES of Russia, Murmansk rescuers search and rescue team, Task Force Main Emer--‐ gency Management Russia in the Murmansk region, experts Murmansk Territorial Emergency Medicine Center, crime lab employees AMIA in the Murmansk region [20].

Teachings Barents Rescue--‐2013 held on 17--‐19 September 2013 in the Norwegian province of Troms (Fig. 2).

Thus, the BEAC has accumulated the largest (and most varied) experience in conducting joint exercises in the PAG PCHS and the AKP. Unlike other formats of the cooperation, which is mainly focused on carrying out rescue operations at sea and oil spill response exercise on line BEAC included himself and deal with the consequences of land emergencies: radioactive contami--‐ nation, major accidents and train wrecks, landslides, tsunami breakthrough dams, etc.

Arctic. Leading structures within the AU and PCHS AKP is the Working Group on Preven--‐ tion, Preparedness and Emergency Response (Emergency Prevention Preparedness and Response Working Group), within which there is a Task Force on the BRN - 5 October 6, 2011, held its first command post exercises eight participants AMPS agreement, which took place in the capital city of Whitehorse, Yukon Territory in the northern Canada. On maneuvers attended by 80 people. Representatives MSS PAG. The aim of the exercise was to exchange information and experience in the AKP in the Arctic. Parties informed each other about the national MSS in the region and exist--‐ ing operational plans in this area [17; 25].

In April 2012, Canada held a meeting of Defense Ministers of the Arctic countries in which considerable attention was paid to cooperation in the field of SDP [18].

10--‐14 September 2012 at the eastern coast of Greenland, the first real exercise in the framework agreement AMPS (SAREX--‐2012), as close to real conditions [21; 28]. The exercise was attended by ships, planes, helicopters and rescue teams from Denmark (its mainland, as well as Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Canada, United States, Iceland, Norway and Russia. Conditiona aim of the exercise was to save the passengers and crew of a cruise ship in distress. Teaching oc--‐ curred in three stages. At the first stage the Greenland sea SCC carried by airplanes, helicopters and ships list "disappeared" cruise ship. At the second stage and rescue teams were planted to "distress" the ship, which had put out a "fire" and the first aid "injured" passengers. In the third phase was carried out evacuation "wounded" in hospitals Reykjavik 500 km from the "crash" ves--‐ sel. One of the main goals was to test the teachings of communications systems and equipment in extreme conditions, as well as testing of joint action between national MSS during the rescue op--‐ eration. Currently, the task force on BRN work on simulation exercises on oil spill (as stipulated in the agreement in 2013).

Instead of conclusion: How to make cooperation more effective?

Climatic changes and the associated growing economic activity in the Far North have creat--‐ ed an urgent need to enhance cooperation in the field of PAG PCHS and the AKP. In response to this need PAG form proper international legal framework in both bilateral and multilateral for--‐ mats. In these formats are regularly conducted exercises in the aftermath of the emergencies and the AKP. Especially a lot of experience in this field has been gained in the BEAC. At the same time, at the moment there is a tendency to duplication of the AU and the BEAC in PCHS and the AKP, which is hardly a positive impact on the relationship between these two regional institutions. In--‐ ternational legal framework in this area needs further development and improvement.

Based on this analysis it is possible to formulate the following practical considerations. First of all, you must install the appropriate "division of labor" in the PCHS and SDP between the AU and the BEAC. Possibly within the AU stands concentrate mainly on the incidents at sea (AKP on the water, the prevention and elimination of oil spills and pollution and other toxic substances, etc.) BEAC same could "specialize" on the Elimination of ground emergency (especially those re--‐ lated to radioactive contamination of the environment). Need to intensify efforts to "debug" tech--‐ nical cooperation component of the MSS PAG: communications, navigation, monitoring, emergen--‐ cy alert, rescue equipment, methods of the operation, personnel training programs, etc.

It is worth thinking about the creating a perspective of a single multi--‐rescue center in the Arctic under the auspices of the AU. Currently bodies existing within the AU and the BEAC, mainly a coordinating role in their goal is not to guide specific operations in the aftermath of disaster. Such operations is still the prerogative of national MSS, which at best can combine their efforts on the basis of the agreements on disaster response in 2008, 2011 and AMPS combating spilled oil in 2013. The creation of a proposed single center would increase the effectiveness of cooperation in the field of PAH and PSP AKP, to make it more versatile, aimed at responding to all possible types of emergencies, rather than on their individual views, as it currently exists.

With regard to the recent agreement on combating spilled oil, in terms of its further im--‐ provement and substantiate the need to: 1) change the tone of the document, stressing its bind--‐ ing; 2) clarify and simplify the procedures for the notification of incidents and request assistance; 3) establish a permanent organ dedicated to the prevention and combating of oil spilled (if in the foreseeable future will not be created given a single point of PSP and the AKP in the Arctic); 4) to work out the mechanisms of cooperation between states and companies working on the shelf, to prevent accidents; 5) To strengthen international and national control of security in the areas of oi and on the most dangerous sections of its transportation routes; 6) to develop international re--‐ quirements for technology offshore oil extraction; 7) To develop international requirements for ships carrying oil and oil products; 8) Establish a system of international certification companies planning to develop the shelf, as well as marine transport companies; 9) to determine the mecha--‐ nism responsible for emergency situations for the Arctic, non--‐Arctic states, as well as multinationa corporations as entities that do not have a clear nationality; 10) to determine the mechanism re--‐ sponsible for the pollution of the Arctic Marine Environment in military courts; 11) to create a common international insurance mechanism for dealing with emergencies, including the creation of a special insurance fund.

In terms of the further development of the international legal framework in the field of PCHS and the AKP in the Arctic would be appropriate to begin or complete the development of the regional agreements on: prevention of spilled oil; prevent and combat pollution of the environ--‐ ment (sea and land) other than oil, toxic substances; rules of safe movement of tourist vessels.

Taken together, these measures would more adequately and effectively meet the threats and challenges that brings current and future revitalization of the economic activity in the Arctic.