The Layout Typology of Anatolian Stadions

Theatres or stadions where competitions and ceremonies took place were constructed in the ancient Anatolian towns which were economically developed. Agons in the center of attraction created a market between the towns and brought about competition. Although we encounter theatres built even in the smaller Anatolian towns, stadions were a few in number as they were more costly.

Stadion lexically stands for a length of 600 feet (Golden, 2004) and it connoted the fields where 600-feet-long running competitions were held (Bingöl, 2007). Additionally, in Greek, stadion means «to stand» (Romano, 2016). Early stadions were just a flat area where running events were organized. The first known example of the sta-dions is Stadion of Olympia. Stadion of Olympia which was relocated three times due

to changing demands and advancing course of time was of a rectangular layout ( Kiuri , 2015). There are also examples of flat areas used as stadions that have been supported with walls or terraced to make them suitable for competitions. Even though some information has been obtained from the inscriptions captured in the towns, there are stadions which are yet to discover. In this context, a flat area in a town has been found appropriate to a stadion. Although the use of a flat area as a stadion was a practice of early periods, the practice continued to be adopted in the urban development of Hellenistic and Roman Periods but the number of instances was a few. The flat area located in the north of Hellenistic rampart has been proposed for Stadion of Side – the first prominent example in this respect in Antalya/Manavgat ( Uzunaslan , 2008). When it comes to the town of Aigai in Manisa, the competitions must have been held in the stadion which was flattened and also supported by a wall (Aigai Stadionu, Electronic resource). The study of Sezgin asserts that the layout could be wooden as there is no evidence of a seating arrangement in the slope where the stadion was located ( Sez-gin , 2022). It has been indicated that the stadion in the town of Pitane in Aiolis region which is at the border of today’s İzmir/Dikili was placed in a flattened terrace of 200-meters-length ( Conze et al. , 1912). Even though the layout of the structure is not fully known, it has been proposed that it was a flat area. Stadion of Labraunda in the sanctuary in Muğla was of a flat area layout which was supported by walls and towers. Moreover, it might be argued that it was one of the early stadions since it is possible that the structure could belong to Hecatomnid Period – 4^th century BC ( Roos , 2017). The stadions used as flat area are not considered under a separate typological heading. The early example Dromos Stadion complex is in the town of Hellenistic Pergamon ( Romano , 2016).

There were issues with sport facilities in the towns without stadions. The competitions were organized in the agora of gymnasion of the town. In the towns of Atina and Korint, the races took place in the agora for a while. The running events were held in the open field of the sanctuary in Isthmos before the construction of the stadion. There was a racetrack in Aydın/Didyma in the Anatolian region related to the sanctuary ( Roos , 1994). Furthermore, the steps of the temple were used for the audience ( Roos , 2022). This situation constitutes an example of the relationship between stadi-on and temple.

There were also instances of stadions which were associated with structures other than temple. We encounter seating orders around the marbled street in the town of Phaselis in Antalya. This street as a stadion has been proposed as a showplace open to the public ( Beafort , 2002). Apart from street and temple, the other structure to which stadions are associated is theatres. These complex instances called theatre-stadions were of unlike styles as well in the context of Anatolian typology¹.

The layout typologies of the stadions which were turned into the structure from a flat area differ from each other. The stadions of a rectangular layout generally had two edges which were straight and long. A new technique called sphendone was developed from this layout by adding a semicircle or horseshoe shaped turn similar to theatre cavea. Sphendone, meaning headband and slingshot, was used for theatre auditoriums with elliptical or semi-elliptical shaped arrangements. It was also named for the roundabout/curved parts of stadions ( Smith , 1895). This layout type has been named as horseshoe/single sphendone in the literature. This practice is encountered in Stadion of Nemea from Early Hellenistic Period ( Miller , 2001; Tomlinson , 2003). A turn was added to the opposite axis of the single-shendone U-shaped stadium during the Roman Period. This layout type has been called double sphendone in the literature while Strabon describes it as stadion amphitheater ( Strab ., 14. 1, 43). Apart from this category, we also encounter instances with single-sided seat arrangement in the layout typology of Anatolian stadions.

The scientific studies and excavations associated with stadions are insufficient. The layout typology of Anatolian stadions is examined by considering that information could be changed based on the future excavations.

Rectangular Layout

The rectangular layout constitutes the earliest typology of stadions. Stadion of Olympia was of this rectangular layout. In accordance with the obtained information, it has been observed that this layout type is represented by two examples in the context of Anatolia. Stadion of Miletos in İzmir in the region of Ionia had a rectangular layout ( Gerkan , 1921). On its two long and straight sides, it had benches ( Niewöhner , 2016) (Fig. 1). The structure was built during the late Hellenistic Period and it was improved during the Roman Period ( Gerkan , 1921). Stadion of Priene in Aydın/Söke which is in the same region with of Miletos has a rectangular racetrack for running events. The structure with its single-sided seating arrangement was constructed in the Hellenistic Period ( Schede , 1964).

Single-Sided Seating Arrangement

In this structure category which adhered to the topography, stadions had stands on its single edge. It has been categorized based on its seating arrangement. Stadi-on of Priene with its rectangular layout also falls within this category (Fig. 2). Stadion of Kadyanda2 in Muğla/Fethiye had single-sided stands located at one side of the street. The structure has been dated at about Roman times based on the inscriptions

Fig. 1. Plan of Miletos Stadion. Rectangular layout (after Niewöhner , 2016. P. 119)

Fig. 2. Plan of Priene Stadion. Single-Sided Seating Arrangement (after İlhan , 1996. P. 97)

belonging to the town (Saltuk, 1995; Çevik, 2015). Stadion of Tlos located in the same region had a quite extensive running field. The single-sided seating arrangement with considerable dimensions dominated the stadion. The traces of the Hellenistic Period have been established in the stadion (Korkut, 2016; Kor-kut et al., 2018). Stadion of Arykanda located in Antalya/Finike had a single-sided seating arrangement. At the west edge of the stadion, a niched space which is thought to be sacred has been noted (Bayburtluoğlu, 2003). 3 similar town stadions were determined in the region of Lykia. It was argued that Stadion of Blaundos which is the exception to this category had a single-sided seating arrangement and belonged to the Roman Period (Filges, 2006; Can, 2017). However, the excavations revealed that the area described as the stadion belonged to the bathhouse and its complex (Can, 2023).

Single Sphendone – U-shaped

This single-turned layout type was inspired by the theatre cavea of horseshoe shape ( Saltuk , 1995). Furthermore, as the layout evokes the letter U, it has been called U-shaped in the literature. The single sphendone stadions were generally originated in the Hellenistic Period and commonly practiced during the Roman Period. The primary factor in the construction of the stadions with this layout type was the topography. We encounter single sphendone stadion examples located in a low valley obtained by deepening the land or in an appropriate valley. Together with the start of the Roman Period, we also encounter examples which were raised on a vault in a flat area. In this period, we see the construction activities which were less dependent on the topography. The use of the single sphendone layout enabled the runners and horsemen to take the turns more easily while also enabling the audience to watch more easily. The sphendone parts of the stadions were also used as an arena during the Late Ancient Period.

Hippodrome/circus of Anazarbos3 and Seleuceia Ad Calycadnum4 and Hippodrome of Antiocheia Orontes5, whose dimensions and architectural characteristics reveal them as a hippodrome or as a circus, even though they are called stadions in the literature, were of single sphendone structure. The competitions held in hippodromes/ circuses6 and the competitions took place in stadions demonstrated similar features.

These structures are also examined under this heading. The stadion close to Hippodrome of Antiocheia Orontes had a single sphendone layout and has been dated in the Byzantine Period ( Pamir , 2014).

Stadion of Mopsuestia located in Adana/Misis – one of the Cilicia Pedias towns which is a geography close Antiocheia Orontes – was single sphendone and dated in the Roman Period ( Salmeri, D’agata , 2012). The U-shaped form can be clearly observed in the field. Stadion of Hierapolis Kastabala located in Osmaniye was also of a U-shaped form ( Krizinger, Reiter , 1993; Sayar , 2000). It was closely related to the theatre (see footnote 1).

Another region which had a common border with Cilicia in the south Anatolia was Pamphylia. 5 town stadions with this layout have been detected today in Antalya in this region Pamphylia. Stadion of Perge in Aksu was single sphendone. As a result of continuing excavations, it has been determined that the sphendone was turned into an arena⁷. The structure raised on a vault in a level area has been dated in the Roman Period ( Lanckoronski , 2005; Demirel , 2020; Çokay Kepçe et al. , 2024). Sta-dion of Aspendos in Serik had a U-shaped form ( Lanckoronski , 2005; Özgür , 1993). Almost no studies have been done on the structure. It has been observed that the stadion was extremely damaged. In accordance with the limited data, although its Hellenistic precursor is not known, the structure implies the Roman Period. Excavations continue in Stadion of Sillyon in Serik. It has been determined that it had a single sphendone U-shaped structure and was dated in the Roman Period ( Taşkıran, Uzunel , 2024). The town of Selge took place in the region of Pisidia in the mountainous region of Manavgat. Stadion of Selge was of a single sphendone layout and located closely to the theatre. No excavation has been carried out on the structure and it was dated in the Roman Period ( Machatschek, Schwarz , 1981; Machatschek , 1977; Lanckoron-ski , 2015). The town of Patara in Kaş placed in the west of Antalya was in the region of Lykia. The stadion was drawn as single sphendone in the city plan ( Breuer, Kunze , 2010). It was dated in the Roman Period ( Koçak , 2015).

The towns in the interior region towards the north of the coastal regions of the south Anatolia also belonged to the regions of Lykia and Pisidia. Stadion of Ki-byra which was one of the important cities of Lykia in Burdur/Gölhisar had a single sphendone and U-shaped form. The excavation of the structure has been completed and the structure was dated in the Roman Period ( Ekinci et al. , 2007; Dökü-Kaya , 2013; Özüdoğru, Dökü , 2013) (Fig. 3). Although the layout of Stadion of Sagalassos in Burdur/Ağlasun in the region of Pisidia has been considered as single sphendone, the plan of the stadion is yet to be discovered ( Poblome, Hacıgüzeller , 2020). Thus,

Fig. 3. Plan of Kibyra Stadion. Single sphendone – U form (after Dökü, Kaya , 2013. P. 193)

it could not be evaluated under this heading. Stadion of Pisidia Antiocheia in Isparta/ Yalvaç had a single sphendone U-shaped form ( Taşlıalan , 2001; Waelkens , 1998). The stadion which has been damaged has been considered under the Roman urban development ( Özhanlı , 2013).

Two stadions of the single sphendone layout have been found in Denizli which is the borderer of Burdur in the interior of the west Anatolia. Stadion of Tripolis in the region of Lydia in today’s Denizli/Buldan was single sphendone but no excavation has been carried out. The structure was dated in the Roman era ( Duman , 2013; 2022). Stadion of Herakleia Salbake in Karia region in Denizli/Tavas had a single sphendone U-shaped form ( Şimşek , 2002). There is no detailed information about the period of the structure.

There were 3 single sphendone town stadion in Aydın. Although it has been called double sphendone in the literature, considering the field, it is obvious that Stadi-on of Nysa in Karia region in Aydın/Sultanhisar is single-sphendone shaped. It was dated in the Roman Period ( İdil, Kadıoğlu , 2006; Öztaner , 2018). Today, a road is passing through the location of Stadion of Alinda in Aydın/Karpuzlu ( Ruggendor-fer , 2011). It had a single sphendone structure in the drawings from 19^th century ( Le Bas et al. , 1847–1877). Stadion of Magnesia Meandrum in the Ionia region in Aydın/Germencik had a U-shaped form and was single sphendone. It is one of the rare examples which remained standing today. It was dated in the Roman Period ( Bingöl , 2007; Bingöl et al. , 2008).

Two town stadions of this layout type have been found in İzmir which is the coastline of the west Anatolia. Stadion of Ephesos in the Ionia region in today’s İzmir/ Selçuk was single sphendone shaped. It was dated in the Hellenistic and Roman Period ( Karwiese , 1995; 1997). The stadion in the lower town of Pergamon in the region of Mysia in ancient times and in today’s İzmir/Bergama had a single sphendone form. It was dated in the Roman Period ( Radt , 2002).

Two town stadions of this layout have been found in Manisa. The theatre-stadi-on in Sardes in Salihli which was part of the Lydia region during ancient times was of a complex structure and single sphendone U-shaped form ( Rautman , 2011; Hanff man , 1983). The Hellenistic precursor of the structure is not known. It was dated in the Roman Period ( Yegül , 2020). The town stadion in Saittai/Sidas in Demirci has

(after Yiğitpaşa , 2023)

Fig. 5. Claudiapolis Stadion. Single sphendone – U form (after Yiğitpaşa , 2023)

Fig. 6. Claudiapolis Stadion. Single sphendone – U form (after Yiğitpaşa , 2023)

been considered as a single sphendone U-shaped structure. No study has been done on the structure. Stadion of Alexandria Troas in the region of Troas in today’s Çanak-kale was of single sphendone form. The information about its Hellenistic period is plenty ( Mechikoff et al. , 2011).

Stadion of Claudiapolis in the center of Bolu in the Bithynia region of the north Anatolia was the latest structure of this layout type. It has been proposed that the city had 2 theatres ( Çelik , 2019). The majority of the stadium, which runs parallel to İz-zet Baysal Street in the northeast-southwest direction, has been removed due to road construction and building construction. In terms of plan, it was seen as a one-sided seating arrangement on the slope as far as it can be seen on the current soil surface.

However, it has been argued that the structure had a single-sided seating arrangement based on the excavation carried out in 2008. This stadion differs from other Anatolian stadions with its inscription and was dated in the Emperor Hadrian (117– 138 AD) ( Güneş , 2010). In the study conducted in 2022, it was determined that the slope on which the seating rows rested continued in some way. I evaluate that the stadium was built in a ‘U’ plan type with single-sphendonne-shaped ( Yiğitpaşa , 2023) (Fig. 4–6).

Double Sphendone

The stadions under this category had two turns. The earliest example of this category is considered to be Stadion of Nicopolis in Greece. It has been seen as a transition from Greek stadion to Roman amphitheatre ( Krizinger , 1987). Stadion of Nicopolis had been of a single sphendone layout during the Augustus Period while another turn was added to it during the Emperor Domitian Period ( Zachos , 2016). These double sphendone stadions appropriate to the Roman sense of fun were not preferred much outside Anatolia. These stadions were a few in number. Possible reasons for this are the cost of the structure and the appropriateness of the topography.

Three double sphendone town stadions in Karia region have been found. The most significant of these stadions is double sphendone stadion of Aphrodisias in Aydın/ Karacasu which remains standing today. It was dated in the Roman Period ( Welch , 1998; Uzunaslan , 2010) (Fig. 7). Stadion of Antiocheia Meandrum in Aydın/Kuyucak is considered as a single sphendone structure in the literature ( Hamilton , 1842; Söner , 2017). However, it is asserted that the stadion was of double sphendone layout based on the inscription about the restore of its sickle-shaped two edges ( Welch , 1998; Kienlin , 2011). Stadion of Tralleis in Aydın ( Vitruvius , 2015,V/IX; Roos , 1994; 2022) was a complex structure with the theatre. The stadion of the structure had a double sphendone layout ( Leake , 1824).

There were 2 double sphendone stadions in Phrgygia region. Although Stadion of Laodikeia ad Lykus in Denizli had a double sphendone layout, it was not as lucky as Aphrodisias. The structure was dated in the Roman Period ( Şimşek , 2005; 2007). Stadion of Apameia Kibotos (Kelainai) in today’s Afyon/Dinar has been determined to be double sphendone based on the inscriptions ( Üyümez et al ., 2010).

The latest structure under this layout typology has been considered as Stadion of Magarsus in Cilicia Region in today’s Adana/Karataş. Even though the structure was considered to be single sphendone ( Heberdey, Wilhelm , 1986; Alishan , 1899; Sayar , 2002), the latest studies reveal that it had a double sphendone layout and was dated to the Roman Period⁸.

Fig. 7. Plan of Aphrodisias Stadion. Double sphendone (after Welch , 1998. P. 549)

Conclusions

Anatolian stadions were categorized into 4 groups as stadions with rectangular layout, stadions with single sided seating arrangement, stadions with single sphendone layout, and stadions with double sphendone layout. Apart from these categories, we encounter stadions which do not fall under a specific typology. Stadions first appeared as a flattened or terraced field since they were first a level area associated with the sanctuary. Some specific examples are Aigai, Labraunda, Pitane and Didyma. Side has been also proposed as a level area for the stadion. In this context, we detected 5 examples.

When it comes to Milethos and Priene, they had rectangular layouts. These sta-dions were the early examples of Hellenistic Period layout in Anatolia.

The stadions with single sided seating arrangement were generally preferred in Lykia region. Stadions of Kadyanda, Tlos, Arykanda fall under this category. Additionally, Stadion of Priene in Ionia region falls under this heading. Four stadions have been detected under this layout type.

Single sphendone stadions were the most common type of Anatolian stadions. Hippodromes/circuses of Anazarbos, Seleuceia Ad Calycadnum and Antiocheia Orontes had also this layout. Taking into account the stadions of Antiocheia Orontes (Byzantine Period), Mopsuestia, Hierapolis Kastabala, Perge, Aspendos, Silyon, Selge, Patara, Kibyra, Pisidia Antiocheia, Tripolis, Herakleia Salbake,Nysa, Alinda, Magnesia Ad Meandrum, Ephesos, Pergamon, Sardes, Saittai/Sidas, Alexandria Troas, Claudiapolis, we can list 24 structures in Anatolia under this category.

Double sphendone layout was a characteristic of the Roman times. In this context, the towns of Karia and Phrygia feature. Stadions of Aphrodisias, Antiocheia ad

Meandrum, Laodikeia, Apameia Kibotos fall under this category. The latest studies revealed that Stadion of Magarsus in Cilicia also had a double sphendone layout. Five stadions were detected under this heading.

The construction of stadions began during the Hellenistic era and became more common during the Roman era. This study examined 39 stadions or stadion areas, categorized them typologically. Although the typology in Anatolian towns improved over the course of time in the context of urban development, the most common type was single sphendone. The reason behind this is the influence of the architecture of theatre. The dynamic and bloody Roman performances replacing the literary and physical performances resulted in that this layout became even more prevalent. Although Roman architectural techniques were developed, the Hellenistic practices have been followed when deciding the layout. Although Romans were not completely dependent on the topography thanks to the technique of vault, the construction of stadions mostly adhered to the topography. Apart from topography, the most important secondary reason for the construction of stadions is the city’s budget. These two reasons are important issues in determining the stadion plan.