The wooden box from the Urysay-2 complex (Western Kazakhstan, 5th century bce): an interdisciplinary research experience

№ 18. 2024 (Western Kazakhstan, 5th century BCE): an interdi sciplinary research experience the west with a slight deviation to the southwest. A necklace composed of various beads, including eye-shaped, ridged, and smooth round beads of different sizes and colors, was found on the woman’s neck; bronze bracelets adorned her wrists. To the left, at shoulder level, there were two iron knives, iron needles, and an awl, wrapped in a fine cloth dyed red. At the head of the woman was a small round stone sacrificial table (altar) with three legs shaped like the snarling face of a wild boar; two adult saigas and a baby saiga were depicted on the altar’s frieze. A wooden box, square in shape, with a lid was found beside the altar (fig. 1: 4). The box contained ritual items: a bronze mirror, a small organic vessel (leather? felt?), a cedar block, and a wooden “spoon”. The box was removed as a single block, MRI-scanned, and subsequently sent for restoration to the “Ostrov Krym” scientific restoration laboratory.

Research methods. The study was based on a comprehensive interdisciplinary approach, combining archaeological and natural science methods. In the field, the box was extracted as a single block along with the surrounding soil and examined in the laboratory. A comparative analogy method was used to determine its cultural and chronological context. Botanical methods, physical-chemical sciences, and modern computer technologies were widely applied, including X-ray spectro scopy, microprobe analysis, computed tomography, restoration, conservation, 3D reconstruction, chromatography-mass spectrometry, microscopy, and others. These methods are discussed in greater detail below.

Documentation is an integral part of archaeology, and thus the decision was made to use computed tomography. The result was a set of raster images in the form of layered scans in the DICOM (Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine) format, which is one of the most popular standards in medicine (fig. 2) (Mildenberger et al. 2002: 920—927). Computed tomography displays the density of objects using a tonal range from white (representing the highest density) to black (representing the lowest density). Unlike X-rays, c omputed tomography can display objects not only in two dimensions but also in three-dimensional space. By comparing horizontal and vertical crosssections, it was possible to preliminarily determine the approximate location of objects inside the box both horizontally and vertically prior to its opening.

A series of studies were undertaken to develop a restoration plan. Fragments of the box’s base and walls, as well as the cedar block, were analyzed at the Botanical Institute (St. Petersburg, Russia). Microprobe analysis of the mirror fragments was conducted at the National laboratory of collective use by priority “Technologies for hydrocarbon and mining sectors and their related service branches” at the Institute of Metallurgy and Ore Beneficiation (IMOB) (Almaty, Kazakhstan). Spectral analysis of organic dyes was performed at the Satpaev Institute of Geological sciences (Almaty, Kazakhstan).

A fabric sample was examined at the Tohoku University Botanical Gardens (Sendai, Japan). The fabric’s morphology was observed using a digital microscope (KH-7700, Hirox). The sample was impregnated with 50% ethanol, dehydrated with an ascending series of acetone, embedded in epoxy resin (low-visc osity resin, Agar Scientific), and sectioned into 7—10 μm slices using a rotary microtome (HM350, Microm).

Samples of the box’s “lacquer” coating were analyzed at the School of Science and Technology at Meiji University (Japan). The analysis was conducted using pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS). The resulting data were compared with analyses of Toxicodendron vernicifluum, the lacquer tree found in modern Japan, China, and Korea, and Toxicodendron succedaneum, the lacquer tree found in modern Vietnam and Taiwan.

Findings from the Urysay-2 burial site, including some items from the box, were photographed for further processing using photogrammetry. The resulting “duplicates” in the form of 3D models enabled various measurements and the creation of 3D reconstructions.

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Description. The box with a lid is made of thin poplar boards¹, varying in thickness from 0.3 to 1.6 cm. The object is rectangular, with dimensions of 28 cm in length, 25 cm in width, and 11 cm in height (fig. 3; 6: 1 ). The item is covered with a substance resembling lacquer². Inside, various items were found. On top, a mirror was placed diagonally, fitting snugly against the box’s walls, with the disc and the handle’s end pressed into opposite corners, facing upward. The handle and disc were broken in several places (due to natural decay and/or intentional damage). To the right of the mirror, a deformed organic vessel was found in the corner of the box (fig. 3: 4 ). To the left of the mirror, a ribbed wooden objec t and an oval-shaped wooden item resembling the functional part of a spoon with traces of red paint were found (fig. 3: 2 ). Underneath the mirror’s disc, a vertical wooden block (with its narrow side upward, supporting the mirror) and remnants of red-dyed folded fabric were found.

Detailed description of the box’s contents

Bronze mirror . The mirror has a round disc (16.8 cm in diameter) and a long side handle (13 cm long), cast as one piece with wide ridged edges (fig. 5: 2 ; 6: 3 ). Due to significant corrosion, determining its original thickness is impossible. Where the corrosion is less pronounced, the disc’s thickness ranges from 0.1—0.15 cm, and the handle and ridges measure 0.2—0.3 cm. The back of the disc features two low, flat concentric ridges, one along the edge and another closer to the center. These ridges form stepped layers, thickening from the edge toward the middle. The center of the disc has a round raised area. The handle is subrectangul ar, with sides gently curving inward toward the middle and widening at both ends (3 cm wide at the center, 4 cm at the ends). The end of the handle is semicircular. Yellow-colored metal particles are visible on the mirror’s back.

Organic vessel . Severely flattened, making exact measurements difficult to determine (fig. 5: 1 ; 6: 2 ). It is miniature, with a reconstructed height of about 4.3 cm and a maximum diameter of 4 cm. The body of the vessel is ellipsoidal and greatly expanded, with a slightly flattened bottom. The neck is 0.7 cm high, funnel-shaped, and flares to a 2.5 cm diameter at the opening; the rim is flat. The vessel’s wall thickness ranges from 0.2—0.3 cm. The body is decorated with 1 2 vertical ribs, forming the same number of wide flutes running from the neck’s base to the bottom, which is shaped like a low ringed pedestal.

Wooden items. Two wooden items were found (fig. 5: 3, 5 ). One is a small stick, 2 cm long and 0.4—0.6 cm thick, oval in cross-section (fig. 5: 5 ). The item surface is decorated with corrugation. Another item, resembling an oval shallow bowl, measuring 3.8 cm in length, 2.7 cm in width, and 0.5 cm in thickness, was found nearby (fig. 5: 3 ). It is flat, slightly concave, there are traces of paint on the surface. These objects likely belonged to a spoon used for handling dyes (fig. 6: 4 ).

Cedar block . Trapez oidal in shape, 8.3 cm high, with the lower base measuring 9 cm wide and the upper base 6.1 cm wide. The thickness in the middle section is 4.2 cm (fig. 5: 4 ). There are traces of red paint on the upper surface, while the lower wide side is smoothed, suggesting its use as a tool for grinding.

Folded fabric . Initially appearing as, a porous object, it turned out to be a fragment of relatively thin red fabric, folded in several layers (fig. 5: 6 ). The thread thickness is about 0.3 mm, with slightly larger gaps between the loops.

Conservation and restoration of the box. All preservation and restoration work on the box was carried out at the “Ostrov Krym” Scientific Restoration Laboratory. At the time it arrived at the lab, it was an archaeological block, carefully removed from the excavation trench. The condition of the box wooden components at the start of work was extremely dried out and fragile. However, thanks to the meticulous and careful extraction of the box in the field conditions, a detailed study and preservation of the object became possible. The initial cleaning revealed traces of soil-dwelling

The wooden box from the Urysay-2 complex № 18. 2024 (Western Kazakhstan, 5th century BCE): an interdi sciplinary research experience animals (likely rodents). Further disassembly of the box revealed that it was completely filled with soil. The activity of soil-dwelling animals had accelerated the degradation of the artifacts due to the regular introduction of food, bacteria, microorganisms, and insects.

Initial survey was conducted with the participation of the artifact’s discoverer, archaeologist Yana Lukpanova. The box is a small wooden container with a flat wooden lid. Due to significant degradation, the lid had fragmented into small pieces. These pieces were transferred to a prepared surface, and the box was gradually disassembled. As the box was freed from soil, its walls began to emerge. To prevent the walls from crumbling, they were injected with a polyvinyl butyral (PVB) solution in alcohol as they were exposed. This method helped stab ilize the material, though periodic impregnation and examination of the wood continue. Cleaning the box’s components from the surrounding soil without stabilizing the wood would have been impossible. Therefore, the exposed wooden fragments were gra dually injected with a 5% polybutyl methacrylate (PBMA) solution in acetone. This approach allowed for the systematic consolidation of all the walls and the lid during the disassembly process, preserving the shape of the surviving fragments.

The restorati on process was complicated not only by the wood’s condition — its fragility and excessive dryness — but also by the deformation and fragmentation of the bottom, walls, and lid of the box. Small, smooth, dark plates resembling lacquer were found on the box’s surface, dried and fragmented. For further analysis, samples of this coating were sent to the School of Science and Technology at Meiji University (Japan).

Resinous samples were analyzed using pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS). As a comparison, the results were compared with those of a coating of Toxicodendron vernicifluum , a lacquer tree growing in modern Japan, China and Korea, and a coating of Toxicodendron succedaneum , a lacquer tree growing in modern Vietnam and Taiwan. The results showed that the sample from the Urysay site is composed of completely different components from lac quer. Squalene and cholesterol detected by the sample analysis are components of human sebum. The four sharp peaks appearing at the retention time of 15 to 17 minutes, which are characteristic of this sample, are components not registered in the database but are considered to be compounds with a common main skeleton, as they contain 93 and 120 in the fragment ions. In addition, each compound’s parent ion (corresponding to the molecular weight) has an odd value, so it was judged that they are likely to be nitrogen- or sulphur-containing compounds.

Since there are no natural resins that match this spectrum in the data we currently have, it is assumed that raw materials specifi c to the region or country were used.

According to the studies conducted at the Botanical Institute (St. Petersburg, Russia), the wood of both the base and the walls of the box was identified as poplar (Populus). Poplar is a common tree species in the region where the box was found, suggesting that the box was likely produced locally.

During the reconstruction of the box, questions arose regarding its shape and the fastening system. Specifically, how the walls and base were connected, how the walls were fastened together, and whether there was a fastening mechanism on the box’s lid. To address these questions, a macrophotographic study was carried out using a Nikon camera with 4K resolution, allowing for the observation of fine details with high precision. Macro lenses were also employed. The images were displayed on an 8K high-resolution Samsung screen, enabling not only the operator but all participants to simultaneously observe the objec t and discuss the images in real-time during the examination.

Box Contents. The first object revealed during the disassembly of the box was a bronze mirror. Due to the unfavorable environment, the mirror had undergone significant corrosion, and its surface was covered with a greenish patina. The mirror was fragmented, likely as a result of natural degradation or intentional damage. By the time the box was opened, the mirror had broken into several large and small, extremely fragile pieces, still in situ. One edge of the mirror had “joined” to the box’s wall, while the other was on the wooden artifact described earlier as a block.

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Microprobe analysis of a fragment of the mirror revealed that the bronze alloy was primarily composed of copper and tin (~10.6 wt.% Sn). One of the surfaces was plated with a yellowish-white metal, likely gold.

The subsequent reconstruction of the mirror was based on laboratory studies. The poor preservation of the mirror fragments prevented the removal of contamination. Therefore, various measurements of the surviving fragments were taken, particularly their thickness at different points.

The small vessel was found at the bottom of the box, diagonally from the mirror. During the ruination it had become significantly flattened, with a diameter of about 6 cm and a height of 1.5 cm. CT scans revealed that the vessel had been compressed from top to bottom but not destroyed, suggesting that the material it was made of was not brittle but rather flexible and soft. Initially, it was thought to be made of tin, as the vessel’s exterior had a white color and powdery texture, similar to the effects of tin corrosion. However, further analysis revealed that the vessel’s walls contained no metals, consisting solely of organic materials. Detailed examination of the vessel’s walls showed that they were dark in cross-section, while the white color was a deposit on the exterior. A similar deposit was found at the bottom of the box, beneath the vessel. X-ray spectral analysis indicated that the vessel’s walls were predominantly organic in origin (Laboratory of the Satpaev Institute of Geological sciences, operator V.L. Levin), possibly made of leather, felt, or other plant-based material. Further studies are necessary for a more precise identification of the material.

The fragmentation of the vessel allowed for the measurement of its wall thickness, which was approximately 2—3 mm, with a thickening at the neck.

Plant roots were found inside the vessel. Preliminary studies (Komarov Botanical Institute RAS. A.V. Stepanova) identified the pre sence of nodules, suggesting that the plant belonged to the bean family (Fabaceae) . More accurate results could be obtained with further research, although this may be challenging due to the poor preservation of the material.

The wooden artifact similar to a small block, has a wide surface at the bottom and a narrow one at the top. The block is thought to have been cut from a large branch. As mentioned earlier, the bottom wide part of the block was smoothed. Studies at the Botanical Institute indicated that this object is a fragment of a coniferous tree, specifically cedar (Cedrus) . Cedar is not native to the Western Kazakhstan region, indicating that this item was likely brought from another area. Red paint or some other red substance, initially thought to be ochre, was found on the top of the cedar block. However, X-ray spectral analysis revealed a low iron content (on average Fe = 0.77%), whereas ochres typ ically contain between 12% and 75% iron; instead, the substance had a predominantly organic composition (on average, oxygen = 29.01%, carbon = 56.68%), with small amounts of silicon (3.11%), calcium (4.43%), aluminum (2.2%), sulfur (2.79%), and trace amounts of manganese, phosphorus, chlorine, and potassium (less than 1%) (Yudina et al. 2016: 21—34).

Microscopic examinati on of the red substance revealed a fibrous and relatively loose structure. The fibers do not form a clear structure, as they would if it were fabric, but instead are arranged chaotically. The fibers are thin, barely visible un der normal magnification. All of this suggests that the material is not ochre, but rather an organic substance, likely felt, dyed red. The presence of aluminum may indicate that the red color was achieved using an alum-based dyeing process. This evidence suggests that the mirror was stored in a red felt pouch, traces of which were imprinted on the block where the mirror was found. Upon examination the textile remnants appeared to be a porous red-and-white object (fig. 4: 1—2 ). Subsequent analyses revealed that this was a folded piece of fabric. Apparently, the fabric’s weave created the porous appearance. Although the fabric occupied a small area, it was quite voluminous. It is likely that this was a bundle of fabric placed inside the box.

For more precise analysis, a sample of the fabric was examined at the Tohoku University Botanical Gardens. The material investigated is a piece of textile (URY-4) of about 4 × 7 mm, sampled from a larger textile fragment excavated from the main body (fig. 4 : 3—4 ). This textile consists of five alternating layers of vermilion (URY-4-1) and dark brown (URY-4-2) fabric (fig. 4: 3 ).

The wooden box from the Urysay-2 complex № 18. 2024 (Western Kazakhstan, 5th century BCE): an interdi sciplinary research experience

The morphology of each fabric was observed with a digital microscope (KH-7700, Hirox). At that time, the textile fragment was soaked in 50% ethanol to remove sand and other materials adhering to the surface, and observation was conducted while soaked in 50% ethanol. A small piece (about 2 × 2 mm) of each colour fabric was taken as a sample for identification.

Samples were dehydrated with ascending acetone series, embedded in epoxy resin (Low Viscosity Resin, Agar Scientific), and sectioned into 7—10 Д thicknesses with a rotary microtome (HM350, Microm). Obtained preparations were identified with an optical microscope referring to extant specimens. The preparations are numbered URY-4-1 and URY-4-2 and preserved at Botanical Gardens, Tohoku University.

As a result of the analysis, it was found that three types of fibers were used as the fabric material:

Type 1. Single fibre with vermilion surface and pale-yellow inside.

Type 2. Single fibre with vermilion, dark brown or light brown surface and an internal cavity.

Type 3. Fibre bundles with about 10 fibres clustered tightly.

In all types, the cross-sections of the fibre cells were oval to polygonal in shape with rounded corners. The mean width of fibre cells (major axis x minor axis) for type 1 and type 2 was 18.5 x 10.0 Д in the vermilion fabric (URY-4-1) and 16.9 x 10. д in the dark brown fabric (URY-42), respectively. For type 3, the mean width of fibre cells was 10.6 x 6. д . The fibre in type 1 was identified as silk based on the observation of a solid interior, cross-sectional shape and size, which are consistent with the characteristics of this natural fibre. Type 2 fibres were hollow, but other morphological characteristics were the same as those of type 1 fibres. It was inferred that only the coloured surface portion of the fibre remained, with the interior undergoing decomposition and destruction in the deposition environment. Consequently, type 2 fibres were identified as silk. The fibres in type 3 were narrower than those in types 1 and 2. It was postulated that the fibres could be an aggregation of narrow silk fibres or thin-walled, hollow plant fibres, but they could not be identified.

The cross sections of the yarns of the vermilion fabric (URY-4-1) and the dark brown fabric (URY-4-2) showed a mesh-like structure of the same colour as the fabric. In the cross-linked portions of the mesh-like structure, many linear materials, measuring approximately 15—20 Д in length and 3—4 д in width, were observed with the sand grains. The linear materials were vermilion or brown, suggesting that the type 2 hollow fibres had collapsed. Large and small voids were found in the meshlike structure. The large voids were about 40 x 3 д for the vermilion fabric and about 30 x 2 Д for the dark brown fabric. These large voids were thought to be the collapse or decomposition of the fibre clusters or fibre bundles there. The small voids were the result of the decomposition of single fibres.

The two coloured fabrics were coarse-weaved, with a 0.5 × 0.8 mm gap. The yarn density of both fabrics (URY-4-1 and URY-4-2) was 10 × 20 (threads/cm), but the warp and weft yarns were indiscernible. The yarns were Z-twisted with an average width of 0.37 mm in the vermilion fabric (URY-4-1) and untwisted with an average width of 0.28 mm in the dark brown fabric (URY-4-2). It was presumed that the excavated textile fragment overlapped two different types of fabrics.

Discussion. The presence of various types of boxes in the burials of ancient nomads is a rare phenomenon, but perhaps most of them have not survived to the present day. Among Sarmatian-type sites, such finds are known from elite kurgans in the Ural-Ilek interfluve from the late 6^th to 5^th centuries BCE. For instance, from kurgan No. 23 of the Kyryk-Oba II burial site; in Western Kazakhstan, a rectangular faience box with a lid of imported origin was found (Gutsalov 2009: fig. 2, 5; Treister 2012b: 192, fig. 87—88). Other similar items were made of wood. During the looting excavations of the Pyatimary I—III buri al sites, among other objects a “large rectangular box with a lid” was found (Smirnov 1975: 10). A walnut wooden box was found in a rich priestess burial in kurgan No. 6 of the Taksay-I burial site. Inside the box were a knife, a wooden comb, an alabaster vessel, a grinder with a pestle, a pebble, brushes, wolf fangs, and teeth. The contents of the box can be interpreted as a set for ritual actions (Lukpanova2018: 230—231, fig. 4). The remains presumably of a box, containing various items (a mirror, a shell, paints, chalk, a pebble, a wooden block, pendants),

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were recorded in kurgan No. 3 of the Tarabutak burial site (Smirnov 1975: 43). The Urysay box in terms of size is closer to the find from burial 1 of kurgan No. 2 of the Mechetsay burial site (30 × 30 cm), dated to the 5^th century BCE. This box was made of thin planks and birch bark, and inside was a bronze mirror (Smirnov 1964: 138, fig. 20: 4 ; 1975: 79—80, 90).

In the archaeology of Scytho-Saka and Xiongnu periods, lacquer-covered finds from China are well known. These are found in the Altai, Tuva, Transb aikalia, and Siberia— areas of pastoralists located closer to China and which had closer connections with Chinese lacquer production centers (Novikova et al. 2013: 112—124; 2018: 106—143; Dashkovsky, Novikova 2017: 116—126). The Urysay box was coated with a resinous substance unrelated to Chinese or East Asian lacquer. This “lacquer” seems to have originate d from other centers or been of local production. It is possible that nomads had their own methods for giving wooden objects shine and protecting them from moisture, which further research may illuminate.

The shape of the Urysay mirror disc has no exact parallels known to us. However, in terms of the nu mber of ridges and the presence of gilding, it can be compared to an example from the Saka Issyk kurgan, dated to the 5^th century BCE (Akishev 1978: 28—39, tab. 33). Distant parallels also exist with so-called rattle mirrors or “musical” mirrors found in the Southern Urals (Mechetsay, kurgan 8; Yakovlevka-II, b urial 4) and the Altai (Pazyryk, kurgan 2; Rogozikha-I, kurgan 5; Lokot-4a, kurgan 1), which feature two high ridges and a conical protrusion in the center. Some Altai mirrors (except Pazyryk) are also gilded. “Musical” mirrors, mainly dated from the 5^th to the 4^th centuries BCE, are considered to be Eastern, specifically Indian imports (Umansky, Shulga 1999: fig. 11— 15; Shulga 2003: 91—92; fig. 53: 1—4 ; Umansky et al. 2005: 28—32; Treister 2012a: 121—133, tab. 79—85; Tairov 2018: 350—352; and etc.).

Morphologically the Urysay mirror is more comparable to type X (according to K.F. Smirnov), characterized by one wide ridge along the edge of the disc and a flat side handle. Such examples are primarily found in burials in the Southern Urals and Western Kazakhstan, dating from the second half of the 5th century to the turn of the 4th—3rd centuries BCE (Smirnov 1964: 159; Tairov 2018: 349; Skripkin 1990: 150). They seem to begin appearing sporadically from the late 6th to the first half of the 5th century BCE, as evidenced by finds from the Besoba burial site (Kadyrbayev 1984: fig. 1: 51 ; Degtyareva, Kuzminykh 2018: fig. 3, 4) and kurgan No. 5 of the Ilekshar I burial site (Gutsalov 2007: fig. 16: III : 4 ).

More analogies can be found in the shape of the handle. Mirrors with a widening handle rounded at the end come from South Ural burial sites from the second half of the 5th to the end of the 4th century BCE. These include Filippovka-1 (kurgan No. 7; kurgan No. 24, burial 3; kurgan No. 15, burial 2) (Pshenichnyuk 2012: fig. 94: 10; 95, 1 ; 152, 12 ; Yablonsky 2013: 149), Akoba II (kurgan No. 1, burial 1) (M orgunova, Kraeva 2012: fig. 9: 1 ), Imangazy-Karasu (kurgan No. 3) (Gutsalov 2000: fig. 101: 6 ; Vasilyev 2004: 167, fig. 3: 11 ), “Pobeda” (kurgan No. 3), kurgan Tulubai, and others (Tairov 2018: fig. 1: 1, 5, 8 ).

The organic material vessel (leather? felt?), which is well preserved, is a unique find with no direct analogs. A relatively similar item in form and decoration is a silver cosmetic vessel from burial 2 of kurgan No. 1 of the Filippovka 1 burial site (late 5th—early 4th centuries BCE), featuring a similar body shape and fluting (Treister 2022: fig. 2: 3 , 8: 1—2 ). Vertical flutes were found on various types of vessels, both imported from the Near East (silver amphorae, bowls) (Yablonsky 2013: 96; Treister 2018: 123, fig. 7: 1—3 ), and on local ceramics from the Southern Urals (Mechetsay, kurg an No. 9, burial 1; kurgan Tulubai) (Smirnov 1964: fig- 46: 1l ; Ismagil, Sungatov 2013: fig. 38: 5 ) and Scythia from the 5^th — 3^rd centuries BCE (Melyukova 1962: fig. 2: 2—4 ; Marchenko 1972: fig. 3: 2—3, 7 ; Puzikova 1969: 64, fig. 3: 8 ).

The Urysay vessel seems to belong to the category of cosmetic vessels, widely used during the Sarmatian period. These were usually made of clay, small in size, and intended for storing various dyes, perfumes, and aromatic substances. Sometimes they were made of stone, glass, or leather. For

№ 18. 2024

The wooden box from the Urysay-2 complex (Western Kazakhstan, 5th century BCE): an interdi sciplinary research experience example, a leather flask tied with sinew containing a stick was found in kurgan No. 7 near the Sara village in Orenburg (Smirnov 1964: 161, fig. 35B: 15; 1973: 166—179). A leather pouch containing a bone needle was found in a female burial at Filippovka-1 (kurgan No. 15, burial 4), and is presumed to be a tattooing kit (Yablonsky 2013: 51, 159).

The cedar wood artifact, of evident import, is a rare find for the Southern Urals. Cedar naturally grows in regions such as Northwest Africa, the Middle East (Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Cyprus), and the western Himalayas (Lesnaya entsiklopediya 1985, 410; Drevesnye porody mira 1982: 99—100). Similar wooden blocks have been found in burial sites of early nomads from the Orsk-Ilek steppes of the late 6th—5th centuries BCE (Tara-Butak, kurgan No. 2, burial 3; kurgan No. 3; Novy Kumak, kurgan No. 19, burial 2; Yakovlevka, kurgan No. 2, burial 1). Most of these were found on or near stone altars and had the traces of treatment. Apart from the Novy Kumak find, these blocks were made of pine or juniper. All these burials have been interpreted by researchers as priestess burials (Smirnov 1964: fig. 18: 3 ; 1975: 42—43; 1977: 24; Fedorov, Vasilyev 1998: 65—66, 72). A similar block made of maple was found in a case-box in burial 2 of kurgan No. 5 near the Bulgakovo village in the Northern Black Sea region (4th century BCE). The contents of the case were identified as a woman’s set of objects for textile work (Daragan et al. 2022: 408, fig. 9).

The preference for coniferous woods (pine, juniper, cedar) is likely not accidental, possibly due to their aromatic, medicinal, and cosmetic properties (Urusov et al. 2007; Sklyarevsky, Gubanov 1970: 121—122, 162—164; Lesnaya entsiklopediya 1985: 410—414; Fedorov, Vasilyev 1998: 72). Herodotus describes a similar episode among the Scythians: “Their women rub pieces of cypress, cedar, and incense wood on a rough stone, adding water, and with this thick paste, they anoint their bodies and faces. This gives them fragrance. The next day, after removing the plaster, they appear both clean and glossy” (Dovatur et al. 1982: 129).

The ritual use of coniferous wood fragments is also possible. K.F. Smirnov suggests that pine blocks in Sarmatian burials were raw materials for incense or frankincense. He refers to well-known religious practices in India and Ceylon, where sandalwood is used for incense in Buddha worship due to its aromatic properties (Smirnov 1964: 167). V. K. Fedorov holds a similar view, suggesting that pine was ground into a powder for long-lasting smoke production (Fedorov 2001: 33). Among the Navajo of North America, cedar smoke was used during rituals (De Rios 1997: Pl. 5). These objects may also have been used as “pestles”, as evidenced by the shape of the block from Yakovlevka kurgan, one side of which corresponds to the recess of a stone altar (Fedorov 2000: 66; Fedorov, Vasilyev 1998: 72).

Various types of spoons are frequently found in the burials of nomads from the Southern Urals; however, all are made of bone (Fedorov 2000: 66; 2013) with a few exceptions (Novoorsky II, kurgan No. 2, burial 2). Opinions regarding the purpose of bone spoons range widely, from their association with women’s cosmetic use (Smirnov 1964: 160—161) to their connection with funerary rituals, particularly fire sacrifice (Luk’yashko 1997: 136—137; Fedorov 2013: 58—59). The paint traces on the Urysay “spoon” sugg est it may have been used for mixing pigments. Mineral-based paints are frequently found in early nomadic burials, used for cosmetic, ritual, tattooing, and other purposes (Tairov, Bushmakin 2001). A similar spoon with a ribbed handle, but made of bone, was found in the Pyatimary I burial site (kurgan No. 4, burial 2) (Smirnov, Petrenko 1963: Pl. 22: 19 ). The ribbing on the handle likely served not only decorative purposes but also improved grip.

The fabric fragment from the Urysay burial site appears to have been made using plain weave. A fabric with similar weave was found in burial 2 of kurgan No. 5 near Bulgakovo (Daragan et al. 2022: 413, fig. 12). It is important to note that the textile fragment from the box was folded in multiple layers, forming a volume, possibly suggesting something was wrapped in it.

The fabric materials were single fibres and fibre bundles, and the single fibres were identified as silk. The single fibres are solid and distinguished from hollow plant fibres (such as cotton: Gossypium spp. and hemp: Cannabis sativa ). It is also distinguished from solid animal hair by the diameter and the presence of cuticles on the surface.

Yana Lukpanova, Abai Seitov, Kyrym Altynbekov, Elina Altynbekov a, Mikhail Antonov, Gaukhar Kaldybayeva, Takayuki Honda, Yuka Sasaki, Kazutaka Kobayashi, Shinya Shoda № 18_. 2024

For fibre bundles, both silk and plant fibres are considered. If it is a plant fibre, the fibre cells have a very thin cell wall, and the mean width is narrow at 10.6 x 6. ^ . The well-known plant fibre material is the bast fibre of C. sativa (Cannabaceae) , which is formed in the cortical layer of the stem, with several to several dozen fibre cells forming a fibre bundle. Although the bast fibres of C. sativa contain fibre cells with a narrow diameter comparable to those of the excavated textile, they differ in that the cell walls are thicker. Cotton, also used as a fibre material, is a seed fibre growing on the seed surface of Gossypium (Malvaceae) plant. It differs from the excavated textile in that the fibres are single fibres rather than fibre bundles, and the cell lumen is collapsed. Kapok is a plant fibre with thin cell walls and a wide cell lumen obtained from the fruit of Ceiba pentandra (Malvaceae). However, its fibres also differ from the relics because they do not form fibre bundles and have a wider fibre cell.

Fiber identification of the excavated textiles is done by comparison with living plant specimens. For the textiles excavated in Kazakhstan in this study, the microscopic specimens of living plants in our collection were mainly Japanese p lants, so there were no plants in our specimens corresponding to the excavated textiles.

The fibers of the found textiles were identified by comparing them with samples of living plants, which in our collection were mainly of Japanese origin, so our samples did not contain plants corresponding to the found textiles.

As is well known, the spread of Chinese imports, including silk, among the nomads of Eurasia primarily began at the end of the 1st millennium BCE due to the increasing influence of the Celestial Empire towards the West, the emergence of the Silk Road, Chinese production of objects for the foreign market (Linduff 2009: 94; Liu et al. 2021: 1), and the expansion of the Xiongnu who had very close contacts with China (Barinova 2011). However, there are numerous examples of silk spreading beyond China in earlier periods. The oldest remains of silk fabrics, dated to the 2nd — early 1st millennium BCE, have been discovered in the burial sites of Xinjiang, indicating the development of silk weaving and the widespread use of silk garments there (M aitdinova 2004: 27). Early centers of silk spread also include regions of Central Asia. For example, in Bronze Age burials at the Sappalitepa settlement (southern Uzbekistan), remains of plain-woven silk fabric were found (Askarov 1973: 1 33—134). Numerous remains of plain-woven silk fabric dyed red (with madder dye) were discovered in the Altinasar 4 burial site (4th century BCE — 6th century CE) of the Jetyasar culture in the Lower Syrdarya region (Yelkina, Levina 1 995: 37, 39).

The oldest samples of Chinese silk fabrics among nomads come from the Pazyryk kurgans of the Altai Mountains, dated to the 4th century BCE (Zhong, Hann 1989: 405). For instance, in kurgan No. 3, a pouch made of plain-woven silk fabric was found. The same technique was used to create a fabric similar to tussah silk, which was used as a cover for shabracque in the fifth kurgan (Rudenko 1953: 248, Pl. LXXVI: 2 ; 1968: 81, Ill. 76; Lubo-Lesnichenko 1994: 28).

We should also mention the findings of plain-woven silk from the Zhou era in China itself. Fabric from the Western Zhou period (11th —7th centuries BCE) was found in a tomb in Chaoyang (Liaoning province). In the tomb of the feudal lord Huang Meng and his wife near the city of Xinyang (Henan province), several pieces of plain-woven fabric were found, dating to the Spring and Autumn period (8th—5th centuries BCE) (Lubo-Lesnichenko 1994: 24).

Silk finds from other Scythian-Sarmatian kurgans are not known to us. The only exceptions are the Sargat culture sites in Western Siberia, but these date no earlier than the last centuries BCE when Chinese imports had become more widespread. For instance, in the Dachnoye-2 burial site (kurgan No. 1, burial 2) in the Tobol river region (Kurgan Region), in a female burial (3rd — 2nd centuries BCE), crumple d pieces of plain-woven silk fabric were found inside a purs e (Glushkova et al. 2015: 43, 47).

The sources of silk among the nomads of the Southern Urals could have been Chinese silkweaving centers or the regions of Xinjiang and Central Asia (Nicola Di Cosmo 1994: 1109). The latter seems more likely, as the winter pastures of the Southern Ural nomads extended to the lower

The wooden box from the Urysay-2 complex № 18. 2024 (Western Kazakhstan, 5th century BCE): an interdi sciplinary research experience

Syrdarya and the Aral Sea region. However, we cannot rule out the possibility of silk imports through intermediary tribes, such as the Pazyryk or other Central Asian and Kazakh pastoralists. It remains to be hoped that further research will shed light on this issue.

Conclusion. The discovery of the box with items may provide insight into certain aspects of ancient technologies, external contacts, and the ritual practices of early nomads. Additionally, there is already a successful collaboration between the head of archaeolo gical works and the scientific restoration laboratory “Ostrov Krym” with materials from another Sarmatian site, Taksay-1. This collaboration resulted in the restoration of original artifacts and the creation of a comprehensive scientific reconstruction of the so-called “Altyn Khanshayim” (in Kazakh — Golden Princess) or “Taksay Priestess” (Sdykov, Lukpanova 2013; Altynbekov 2013). The walnut box found in the burial of kurgan No. 6 of the Taksay-1 burial site likely served as a case for ritual items used by the “priestess”.

The items from the box of Urysay burial site may be a ritual set used for religious or cosmetic purposes. The cedar block might have been used for burning incense or for cosmetic purposes. The vessel possibly contained plants used in rituals. The paint traces on the “spoon” suggest it may have been used for operations with dyes. These items in the box are complemented by a small stone altar and a set of tools including needles, awls, and small knives. Mirrors and altars in female burials are traditionally interpreted by archaeologists as objects associated with priestly functions.

The study of the box and its c ontents opens up new perspectives on ancient technologies, contacts, and exchanges. For instance, the coating on the box does not match the lac quer produced in East Asian centers, raising many questions about the origin of the coating. This could indicate that early nomads had their own methods for producing protective coatings similar to lacquer. Furthermore, poplar, the wood species from which the box was made, is widespread in the region.

Fabric remains in ancient burials are extremely rare. Plain weaving is a widely used technique among ancient peoples, but the use of silk as a material was a significant surprise for us. The silk from the Urysay burial site, along with that from Pazyryk, can be considered some of the earliest evidence of this fabric’s spread among nomads. The question of where and how the Southern Ural nomads obtained silk remains open. It may have been acquired through trade, raids, or as a gift. The latter method is well-known in Chinese diplomatic practices with warlike nomads. It is highly unlikely that silk was delivered directly from China; more likely, it was obtained from tribes in contact with China or other silk-weaving centers. The Saka, who had contacts with Southern Ural nomads, could have acted as intermediaries. It is also possible that the silk came directly from Xinjiang or Central Asia, where silk use and possibly silk weaving have been known since antiquity. Moreover, the winter pastures of early nomads in Western Kazakhstan extended into the Syrdarya and Aral Sea regions. Perhaps the cedar wood, the nearest source of which is the Western Hindu Kush, was also obtained through Central Asian intermediaries. Further research is needed to answer these questions.

In general, based on the cumulative analysis of the accompanying objects and burial rite, burial 2 of kurgan No. 13 at the Urysay-2 burial site can be dated to approximately the mid-5th century BCE. This burial exhibits similarities to burials of the Southern Ural complexes, particularly with the burials of elite kurgans of the Orsko-Ilek nomads from the Sarmatian period, allowing for the classification of the studied site within this type of synchronous sites.

It should be noted that the entire complex of objects requires further treatment due to the significant degradation of the material, deformation, and fragmentation. Currently, the stab ilization of the wooden artifacts and the bronze mirror has been achieved. Favorable conditions have been created for the artifact complex, preventing decay and moisture damage.

Yana Lukpanova, Abai Seitov, Kyrym Altynbekov, Elina Altynbekov a, Mikhail Antonov, Gaukhar Kaldybayeva, Takayuki Honda, Yuka Sasaki, Kazutaka Kobayashi, Shinya Shoda № 18_. 2024