Difficulties in Written Expression for Students with Reading Learning Disabilities A Clinical Study of Two Cases in Saïda Province

Автор: Soltana Bousbai

Журнал: Science, Education and Innovations in the Context of Modern Problems @imcra

Статья в выпуске: 1 vol.8, 2025 года.

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The present study aims to identify the difficulties in written expression among students with reading learning disabilities. The clinical approach was adopted, relying on case study methodology, observation, interviews, and psychological tests, including the Diagnostic Assessment Test for Reading Learning Disabilities (Fathi Al-Zayyat), the Colored Progressive Matrices Test (John Raven), and the Written Expression Skills Test (Nesrine Jalal).These tools were applied in a primary school in Saïda province on two cases aged between 10 and 11 years. The findings concluded the following: - Students with reading learning disabilities struggle with written expression. - These students exhibit difficulties in following the conventional structure (introduction, body, and conclusion) in their written compositions, along with grammatical, syntactic, and spelling errors. - They face challenges in using punctuation marks, linking words, and structuring sentences and paragraphs.

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Written Expression, Difficulties in Written Expression, Reading Learning Disabilities

Короткий адрес: https://sciup.org/16010359

IDR: 16010359   |   DOI: 10.56334/sei/8.1.52

Текст научной статьи Difficulties in Written Expression for Students with Reading Learning Disabilities A Clinical Study of Two Cases in Saïda Province

Language holds a distinctive position in education, extending beyond mere learning and skill acquisition to playing a fundamental role in the entire teaching and learning process. The focus on the Arabic language and all its skills is crucial, particularly at the primary level. Mastery of reading skills is not limited to recognizing letter shapes, their formation, and sounds but also involves complex cognitive processes aimed at comprehension, student interaction with texts, and the discovery of grammatical structures and morphological patterns. Linguistic competence in students becomes evident through expressive production, as it serves as the primary means of communication and interaction, enabling them to convey their thoughts and assimilate their surroundings while employing their linguistic repertoire in various educational contexts.

Given the significant importance of written expression skills at the primary level, its instruction is carried out with intentionality. Students are encouraged to produce various texts to utilize their prior knowledge and translate their thoughts and emotions into written symbols. The ability to write correctly, free from errors, in a manner that aligns with their linguistic abilities is essential. Additionally, students are trained to write engagingly, using various skills, including language, memory, sequencing, organization, and linguistic mechanics such as punctuation and spelling. However, some of these skills tend to be weaker in students with reading difficulties.

It is worth noting that fifth-grade primary students exhibit varying levels of proficiency in reading and written expression. Through field visits to a primary school, we observed significant weaknesses in both reading and writing skills at this stage of education. These deficiencies often stem from early learning stages, where traditional teaching methods, without innovative approaches, contribute to students' struggles. This has negatively affected students in this phase, which is meant to solidify their foundational language skills.

  • 1-    Research Problematic

Written expression is a pivotal activity that allows students to utilize their linguistic knowledge in addressing integrative tasks, thereby expanding their expressive abilities and enabling them to develop their unique writing style. Despite the significant role of written expression in Arabic language lessons and its place in current curricula, learning difficulties persist among primary school students, posing a major concern for stakeholders in the Algerian educational system. To date, individual efforts and traditional methods have not been successful in addressing the challenges associated with producing texts that meet the standards of coherence, relevance, and linguistic accuracy.

Numerous Arab and international studies have long confirmed the weakness in expressive writing performance among primary school students. For instance, during the Conference on the

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Development of Arabic Language Teaching held in Kuwait in 1989, under the theme The Reality of Teaching Written Expression in Arab Schools, it was highlighted that Arabic language instruction remains largely imposed on learners, with limited opportunities for productive writing across all educational stages (Aouine, 2018, p. 872).

One of the primary responsibilities of the primary school is teaching reading, as mastering this skill enables children to engage with various subjects, develop themselves, and achieve success in life. Reading also helps in building a rich vocabulary and fostering a desire for self-expression. According to Al-Suwairki (2010), written expression is defined as the ability to convey thoughts and emotions through writing, utilizing linguistic skills such as writing techniques, grammar, punctuation, and correct expressions. However, students often struggle with intertwined challenges, such as difficulty in organizing and retaining ideas, grammatical and morphological errors, poor handwriting, incorrect spelling, and misjudging spacing between letters and words. These issues significantly impact their academic performance.

The relationship between reading and written expression is characterized by a strong interaction and complementarity between these two skills. Writing enhances the learner's familiarity with written words, fosters engagement, and enables them to recognize sentence components. It also encourages interaction with texts and promotes better reading skills. Conversely, good reading skills contribute to good writing skills, as proficient readers are often skilled writers. A student’s ability to master reading directly supports their ability to master writing, enriches their intellectual and cultural knowledge, and elevates their expressive capabilities.

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Effective reading without proficient written expression is of little value. Writing requires a conscious reading process, involving analyzing, critiquing, and evaluating the text, ultimately leading to the correct written reproduction of ideas. Teaching written expression is particularly challenging compared to other language activities at various educational levels because it is an integrative skill that incorporates all Arabic language activities to achieve learner competence. Mastery of oral expression, reading, writing, spelling, grammar, and morphology directly impacts a student’s success in written expression. Failure in any of these components inevitably results in failure to develop strong writing skills (Labik,2021,p. 6).

To assess the prevalence of written expression difficulties among students completing primary education, Aouine (2018) examined the final corrected Arabic language exam scripts of a random sample of 5,554 students from the 2014 primary school exit exam in El Oued province. The results revealed that 37.78% of students failed to achieve the required score in the integrative writing task (written expression).

This finding raises the following research question:

  • Do students with reading difficulties also experience difficulties in written expression?

  • 2-    Research Hypothesis

Based on the research question, the study proposes the following hypothesis:

  • Students with reading difficulties also struggle with written expression.

  • 3-    Research Objectives

This study aims to:

  • 1 .Identify the written expression difficultiesfaced by students withreading difficulties.

  • 2 .Explore the manifestations of weak writing skills among students with reading difficulties.

  • 4-    Significance of the Study

The importance of this study lies in:

  • 1 .The significance of this study stems from the nature of the subject matter, which, to our knowledge, addresses the research variables together.

  • 2 .The practical importance of the study lies in the potential benefits it offers to teachers of students with reading difficulties and the challenges they face in written expression.

  • 3 .Identifying students' writing abilities and determining their strengths and weaknesses, enabling teachers to address these weaknesses and enhance written expression skills.

  • 4 .Opening new avenues for students to conduct further studies in the field of written expression skills, which, to our knowledge, has not received sufficient research and study.

  • 5-    Operational Definitions:

  • 1. 5- Difficulties in Written Expression:

  • 2.5-    Reading Learning Difficulties:

  • 3.5-    Students with Reading Learning Difficulties:

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The inability of a student to produce a coherent, sequential, and well-organized prose text with correct language, in which they express their thoughts, emotions, and perspectives. This is assessed based on the score obtained by students with reading difficulties in the written expression skills test (Jalal Nasreen).

A deficiency in the ability to read and understand written texts, whether silently or aloud, where this deficiency is persistent and does not correspond to the student’s intellectual capacity or academic grade level.

These are students enrolled in the fifth grade of primary school, aged between 9 and 10 years, who have average or above-average intelligence (based on the intelligence test applied in this study) and do not suffer from any sensory impairment. They attend regular classrooms and experience difficulties in learning to read, as identified by the diagnostic test used in this study.

  • 6-    Previous Studies:

Study by AbaaAsmaa (2015):

This study aimed to identify the written expression skills of fifth-grade students and their role in learning the Arabic language in Biskra. The researcher used a descriptive approach applied to a sample of 17 fifth-grade students and developed a questionnaire divided into four linguistic skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The questionnaire was distributed to some teachers, and the study concluded the following results:

  •    Students are unable to express themselves fluently and continuously.

  •    Reading and writing are interrelated skills; reading is a receptive art, while writing is a productive art (Abaa, 2015).

This study aimed to identify the manifestations of weakness in written expression among a sample of students with learning difficulties. It included 100 teachers from Kasbah Mafraq district schools, comprising 61 male and 39 female teachers. A scale was used to identify the weaknesses in written expression among students with learning difficulties from the perspective of regular classroom teachers. Additionally, a written expression skills test, prepared by the researchers, was applied to 30 fifth-grade students with learning difficulties. The resultsshowed:

  •    Students with learning difficulties generally have weak written expression skills.

  •    There were no statistically significant differences in participants’ assessments based on gender or years of experience.

ее

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This study aimed to identify the expressive difficulties experienced by third- and fourthgrade primary school students in Oum El Bouaghi. The researchers employed an analytical statistical approach, applied to a sample of third- and fourth-grade students. A questionnaire consisting of 16 questions was directed at seven teachers with sufficient field experience in education. Students’ expressive errors were analyzed, and the study reached the following findings:

This study aimed to examine the relationship between linguistic intelligence and written expression difficulties among students with learning difficulties. It also sought to diagnose key manifestations of these difficulties. The study adopted a comparative descriptive approach, with a sample of 20 students aged 10–12 years. Various assessment tools were used, including Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices, the Rapid Neurological Screening Test (Abdul Wahab Mohamed),the Mental Abilities Test for ages 9–11 (Farouk Abdel Fattah), and the Diagnostic Rating Scale for Writing Difficulties (Al-Zayyat). The resultsindicated:

  •    No significant differences between male and female students in written expression difficulties.

  •    A correlation between linguistic intelligence and written expression difficulties among students with learning difficulties.

This study aimed to assess the level of written expression skills among third-grade students with writing difficulties. The sample consisted of 24 randomly selected students from El Oued province. A descriptive approach was used, and a test was developed to measure specific written expression skills, including punctuation usage, sentence structure completeness, use of linking words, word arrangement to form meaningful sentences, sentence composition from given words, sentence sequencing to form a story, and appropriate use of expressions related to given images. The findings revealed weak written expression skills among third-grade students with writing difficulties. (Ben Omar &Memmadi, 2022)

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This study aimed to assess the level of written expression skills among fifth-grade primary students. Three primary schools under the Oran Directorate of Education were selected. To achieve the study's objective, a written expression skills questionnaire was developed and applied to a purposive sample of 64 fifth-grade students. This level was chosen because students' written expression skills develop significantly at this stage. The study findingsrevealed:

  •    A clear weakness in all written expression skills among fifth-grade students.

  •    Teachers relied on outdated methods for teaching written expression instead of using modern strategies.

  •    The allocated time for written expression lessons was only one session of 40 minutes, which was insufficient. (Ben Issa & Ben Shedda, 2022)

  • 7-    Critique of Previous Studies:

These studies also differed in their objectives, as each sought to answer questions relevant to its particular focus.

  •    Abba (2015) examined the role of written expression skills in learning Arabic among fifthgrade students.

  •    Zuboon& Al-Natoor (2018) aimed to identify weaknesses in written expression among students with learning difficulties.

  •    Ibrahim &Sayed (2021) investigated the relationship between linguistic intelligence and written expression difficulties in students with learning disabilities while diagnosing key manifestations of these difficulties.

  •    Adnan &Boumaza (2020) studied expressive difficulties among third- and fourth-grade students.

  •    Ben Omar &Memmadi (2022) explored the written expression skills of third-grade students with writing difficulties.

  •    Ben Issa& Ben Shedda (2022) focused on assessing the acquisition level of written expression skills among fifth-grade students.

It is evident that all reviewed studies focused on primary school students, though sample sizes varied. Regarding research tools, some studies utilized questionnaires for data collection,

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while others applied written expression skills tests. Additionally, other research instruments were employed, such as: The Diagnostic Rating Scale for writing difficulties, Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test for cognitive assessment, A teacher-administered scale for identifying signs of weak written expression among students with learning difficulties.

As for the findings, they can be summarized as follows:

  • 1.    A clear weakness in all written expression skills among fifth-grade students.

  • 2.    Students with learning difficulties generally exhibit weak written expression skills.

  • 3.    Fifth-grade students struggle with fluency and coherence in writing.

  • 4.    Reading and writing are interconnected—reading is a receptive skill, whereas writing is a productive skill.

  • 5.    No significant gender differences in written expression skills.

  • 6.    Teachers continue to rely on outdated methods rather than adopting modern strategies.

  • 7.    The 40-minute allocated session for written expression is insufficient.

  • 8.    Writing topics are not suitable for students’ intellectual and cognitive levels.

  • 9.    Writing topics often lack relevance to real-life experiences, limiting students' linguistic and intellectual development.

  • 10.    Many primary schools lack well-equipped libraries.

  • 11.    Dependence on others to complete writing assignments at home hinders students' ability to construct meaningful sentences independently.

Based on this, the current study aims to examine whether students with reading difficulties also struggle with written expression. Additionally, it seeks to assess the severity of these difficulties among fifth-grade students.

From the review of past research, it is clear that previous studies did not integrate both reading difficulties and written expression challenges into a single framework. Thus, this study is among the first to explore the intersection of these two variables, making it a significant contribution to the field.

  • 8-    Tools and Methodology:

    • 8.1-    Methodology:

  • 8.2-    Study Cases:

The clinical approach was adopted as it is the most suitable method for studying individual cases and is appropriate for achieving the study's objectives.

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  •    All cases must have reading difficulties.

  •    The students must not have any sensory or intellectual disabilities.

  • 8.3-    Study Tools and Their Psychometric Properties:

To achieve the intended objectives of our study, the following tools were used:

First: The Diagnostic Assessment Test for Reading Difficulties by Fathi Al-Zayyat:

  • 1 .Validity: Researcher Khouja Asma calculated the test's validity by measuring internal consistency through the correlation between each statement's score and the overall test score using Pearson's correlation coefficient. All correlations were statistically significant at the alpha significance level (α = 0.01), ranging from 0.82 as the highest correlation (between statement 13 and the overall test score) to 0.47 as the lowest correlation (between statement 17 and the overall test score). Additionally, two statements (2 and 19) showed significance at the alpha level (α = 0.05) with a correlation of 0.83. Overall, it can be concluded that this test is valid (Khouja, 2019, p. 120), as illustrated in the following table:

Table No. (01): Correlation Matrix of the Diagnostic Reading Difficulty Scale Statements with the Overall Score

Statement

Axis

Total Score of the

Statement

Axis

Total Score of the

Statement 1

0.491**

11

Statement

0.809**

Statement 2

0.385**

12

Statement

0.818**

Statement 3

0.552**

13

Statement

0.825**

Statement 4

0.662**

14

Statement

0.797**

Statement 5

0.664**

15

Statement

0.630**

Statement 6

0.678**

16

Statement

0.556**

Statement 7

0.753**

Statement

0.477**

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17

Statement 8

0.787**

Statement

18

0.786**

Statement 9

0.767**

Statement

19

0.382**

Statement 10

0.735**

Statement

20

0.769**

Correlation is significant at the alpha level (0.01).

Correlation is significant at the alpha level (0.05).

2- Reliability:

The reliability of the scale was calculated using Cronbach's alpha coefficient:

The researcher Asmaa Khoja calculated the reliability of this scale using the internal consistency method with Cronbach's alpha coefficient, which is based on estimating the average inter-item correlations. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient was found to be 0.93 (for the overall scale), indicating a high level of reliability, as shown in the following table:

Table 02: Reliability of the Reading Difficulty Diagnosis Scale using Cronbach's Alpha for the overall scale

OverallSc

Cronbach's Alpha Coefficient

Number of Items

ale

0.930

20

Second: The Colored Progressive Matrices Test by John Raven:

  • 1 .Validity: Researcher "Qadi Soumeya" calculated the validity coefficient using internal consistency validity through Pearson's correlation coefficient. This was done by determining the internal consistency validity through correlation coefficients between the score of each group and the total test score. The results are shown in the following table:

  • 2 . Validity through Extreme Group Comparison:

Table 03: Correlation coefficients between each group and the total score of the Raven Test

Group

Correlation Coefficient

Group A

0.941

Group AB

0.943

Group B

0.888

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From the table above, we observe that the correlation coefficients for each test group are all significant at the 0.01 significance level, ranging between 0.888 and 0.943. This indicates the validity of the test.

Researcher Qadi Soumia calculated the intelligence test validity using the extreme group comparison method. The scores were ranked in ascending order from lowest to highest. Then, 27% of the lowest scores and 27% of the highest scores were selected. Statistical tests were then applied to examine the significance of differences. The results are shown in the following table:

Table 04: Results of validity coefficient using the extreme group comparison method for the Raven Test.

Lower Group

Higher Group

T

sig

M1

A1

M2

A2

44.817

0.000

2

7.6

2

1.8

41

31.

2.5

It is evident from the table above that the significance value (Sig), which equals 0.000, is smaller than the significance level of 0.01. This indicates that the Raven's Progressive Matrices Test for measuring children's intelligence is valid and effectively differentiates between low-performing and high-performing individuals.

  • 3    - Reliability: The reliability was calculated through the following methods:

    • 3.1    - Split-Half Reliability:

  • 2.3 - Reliability Using the Test-Retest Method:

The reliability of the test was assessed using the split-half method. The test was divided into two equal parts, each containing 18 items. The first part included odd-numbered items, while the second part contained even-numbered items.The correlation coefficient between the two halves was computed and then corrected using the Spearman-Brown formula.

Table 05: presents the results of the split-half reliability calculation for Raven’s Progressive

Matrices Test.

Type of Reliability

Split-Half Reliability

Spearman-Brown

Reliability coefficient value

**0.748

0.855

From the table above, we observe that the reliability coefficient is (0.748), which is a statistically significant value at (0.01). After correction using the Spearman-Brown formula, the reliability coefficient reached (0.855), indicating that the test is reliable.

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The reliability of the test was calculated using the test-retest method, with a time interval of 15 days between the first and second administration. The results are presented in the following table:

Table No. (06): Shows the results of calculating the reliability of the Raven's Progressive Matrices Test using the test-retest method

Type of Reliability

Reliability Coefficient Value

Test-Retest Method

0.633

From the table above, we observe that the test is reliable. (Qadi, 2017, p. 655).

Accordingly, we have relied on the psychometric properties of the test as applied in the Algerian context.

Third: The Written Expression Skills Test by Nesrine Galal Amin

To ensure that students with reading difficulties understand the items of the Written Expression Skills Test and to identify any challenges they may face in comprehension, the original version of the test was administered to students. During its application, we encountered difficulties in understanding some of the test items among most students. Therefore, we presented the modified version of the test to a group of primary education inspectors and teachers in the Wilaya of Saïda to verify its psychometric properties in the Algerian context. The test was administered to the study sample, and validity and reliability coefficients were calculated using multiple methods. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS.

  • 1-    Test Validity: To assess the validity of the test, we relied on:

    • 1.1    - Expert Validity (Content Validity):

  • 2.1- Internal Consistency Validity:

The test was reviewed by five (05) primary education inspectors and teachers to gather their opinions on its suitability for measuring written expression skills, the appropriateness of each item for the skill it represents, and the relevance of the test items to the level of fourth-grade students. The experts provided their feedback on the test items, and adjustments were made accordingly. The necessary modifications, deletions, and additions were implemented based on their suggestions. The following table outlines some of the modifications recommended by the experts.

Table No. (07): Modified Sections and Added Instructions in the Written Expression Skills

Test

Items           Before

Modification

Items After Modification

Added Instructions

Martyrs – Syria – May – Celebrates – Holiday – On the sixth – Of

Independence – Algeria – July – Celebrates – Holiday – On the fifth – Of

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Damascus – Beautiful

Algeria – Beautiful

I observe the following picture, identify its elements, and write a paragraph about these components.

Write a four-line paragraph about the manifestations of

Independence Day celebrations.

July 5, 1962, marks the Independence Day of the Algerian people and their celebration of victory over the French colonizer.

The correlation coefficients between each section of the test questions were calculated, as shown in the following table.

Table No. (08): Correlation Coefficients Between Each Section of the Test Question

o

Sections

Number        of

Questions

Correlation Coefficients

Use  of  Punctuation

Marks

05

0.890**

Use of LinkingWords

04

0.90**

Idea Formulation Skill

02

0.73**

Sentence Formulation

Skills

02

0.70**

2- Difficulty Index and Discrimination Index for Each Question

Two groups were tested:

The first group, which obtained the highest scores (27% of the sample, equivalent to 10

students), is referred to as the upper group.

  •    The second group, which obtained the lowest scores (27% of the sample, equivalent to 10 students), is referred to as the lower group.

The difficulty index was calculated using the following formula:

D.I= - . -X100

N

D.I = Difficulty Index

  •    C.R = Number of correct responses

  •    N = Total number of participants

The discrimination index was calculated by classifying the questions based on their level of difficulty while considering the differences among students, as follows:

Discrimination Index :

С.A high group-C.A low group

Total number of participants in both group

Table No. (09): Difficulty and Discrimination Index for the Written Expression Skills Test

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ons

Questi

No.

Item

Difficulty Index

Discrimination Index

1

Q1

30.33

30.33

Q2

30.33

30.33

Q3

27.00

40.00

Q4

20.00

50.00

Q5

20

50

2

Q1

26.7

40

Q2

26.7

40

Q3

26.7

40

Q4

27.00

40

3

Q1

33.30

33.30

Q2

33.30

33.30

4

Q1

20

50

Q2

23.20

60

From the table, we observe that all difficulty indices range between 20 and 33.30, meaning they are 20 or above. Since the acceptable difficulty index is between 20 and 70, no questions need to be removed, making the test suitable.

As for the discrimination index, it ranges between 33.30 and 60, which is greater than 20. Therefore, no questions need to be removed, and the test can be applied in the current study.

  • 3-    Test Reliability:

The reliability of the test was assessed using Cronbach's Alpha coefficient, which was calculated at 0.834. This high value indicates a strong level of reliability, confirming that the test is suitable for use in this study.

Based on these findings, the modified version of the Written Expression Skills Test is now considered valid for this research.

In this study, various methods were employed, including interviews, observations, medical record reviews, reading achievement tests, and the analysis of students' school notebooks related to written expression.

Clinical Interview: A semi-structured interview was used to gather sufficient information, covering the following key topics:

  • 1 .General Information about the Case: Basic personal and demographic details.

  • 2 .Cognitive Abilities and Capabilities: Assessment of the individual's intellectual and cognitive skills.

  • 3 .Reading Difficulties: Identifying specific challenges in reading acquisition.

  • 4 .Existing Written Expression Skills: Evaluating the individual's proficiency in written expression.

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Clinical Observation:

Direct observation was employed to assessvarious behaviors and responsesof the cases during interviews. Special attention was given to noticeablechanges in behavior, emotional responses, and reactions related to reading and written expression difficulties.

Results Presentation

  • 1.    Psychological Report of the First Case

Based on the conducted interviews and clinical observations aimed at understanding the case’s history, the following findings were recorded:

  • A.    Personal and Family Background:

The child, referred to as "L," is a 10-year-old girl, the third among her siblings, and currently enrolled in the fifth grade of primary school. During the initial interview, she appeared anxious and fearful but later showed some engagement in conversation.

She lives in a medium-income household consisting of her father (52 years old), mother (48 years old), and three brothers. The father works as a merchant, while the mother is a housewife who suffers from hypertension and experiences marital conflicts due to infidelity.

During pregnancy, her mother reported a stable condition and stated that all her childbirths were normal without complications.

  • B.    Family Relationships:

  • "L" has a strained relationship with her mother, who is strict and harsh towards her, frequently assigning her household chores as the only daughter in the family. However, she is pampered by her father, who shows her affection. Her relationship with her brothers is also tense.

  • C.    Academic Performance:

  • "L" has shown a significant decline in academic performance as she does not enjoy studying. She is accustomed to staying at home and performing household chores instead of completing her homework or reviewing her lessons. During interviews, she mentioned that her mother often hits her and forces her to wash dishes and clean the house, leading to frequent school absences, especially in the morning.

Additionally, her relationship with her teacher is poor as she does not complete her homework, lacks interaction with her classmates, and does not participate in classroom activities such as describing pictures on the board or engaging in theatrical performances.

  • D.    Observations in the School Environment:

ее

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Through multiple school visits, it was observed that "L" suffers from frequent daydreaming and lacks focus during lessons, especially in reading sessions.

When asked to continue reading a text, she struggles to locate the correct starting point and requires teacher assistance.

She repeats words multiple times while reading. For example, the word al-shaa-riʕ (the street) is read as "al-ʃaːriʕ ،al-ʃaːriʕ ،al-ʃaːriʕ."

She adds unnecessary letters to words, such as reading “he takes” as “they take”.

She inserts unrelated words into the text, often using colloquial expressions that disrupt the coherence of the passage.

She struggles to follow text lines correctly, often skipping two lines ahead and continuing reading out of sequence.

Her reading is slow and frequently interrupted, with an estimated pause time of approximately three minutes per passage.

The teacher stated that the student does not read texts at home, and the time allocated for the reading session in class does not exceed 20 minutes before moving on to questions about the text due to time constraints. Additionally, the student does not have storybooks for reading in class like her peers, so she merely sits and sleeps at her desk. Her first-term results were below average (4.32), and her Arabic language grade was particularly low.

Regarding her writing skills, it was observed that they are weak and riddled with errors. She does not follow a structured approach in writing composition, often omitting the introduction, body, and conclusion. Her written expression usually consists of disorganized points and elements, with no proper use of punctuation marks or linking words. She also struggles with planning and organizing her writing effectively and does not use words correctly.

Based on the application of the diagnostic rating scale for reading difficulties and according to the correction key, the student obtained a score of 63, which corresponds to a severe level of reading difficulties.

  • -    Results of the Colored Progressive Matrices Test (John Raven):

The total score obtained after applying the Colored Progressive Matrices Test to the case was 21. Referring to the percentile norms to determine the corresponding percentile rank for the student's age, the obtained percentile score was 50, which indicates an average level of cognitive ability.

  • -    Results of the Written Expression Skills Test (Nesrine Jalal):

Table No. (10): Displays the results of the Written Expression Skills Test for the first case.

Written

Use     of

Use     of

Paragraph

Sentence

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Expression Skills

Punctuation

Marks

LinkingWords

Formulation Skill

SkillsWith    the

Integrative

Situation

Question

1

2

3

4

5

6

Score

2

2

1

2

1

3

Total

4

3

4

4

Overall score

15

Based on the table above and according to the scoring key for the Written Expression Skills Test, the scores obtained in the sub-dimensions of the test (punctuation usage skill, paragraph formulation skill, and sentence skills) were 4 points each. Meanwhile, the student scored 3points in the skill of using linking words.

The overall test results indicate that the student experiences difficulty in written expression skills, with a below-average performance level, scoring 15 points.

Psychological Report for the Second Case:

  • " M" is an 11-year-old child, the fourth among his five siblings, and currently repeating the fifth grade in elementary school. During the initial interview, he displayed a sense of indifference.

Family and Social Background:

  • " M" lives in a low-income social environment. His father is deceased, and his 45-year-old mother works as a janitor at the same school he attends. The family faces ongoing conflicts, especially after the eldest son was released from prison.

During pregnancy, the mother experienced various illnesses, and the delivery was by C-section. However, the child's developmental stages were normal, and he does not suffer from any illness or disability.

The mother reported that she constantly struggles due to her sons’ delinquency and their frequent imprisonments. She also experiences poor health following her husband's death. Her relationship with "M" is strained due to his smoking habit, which often leads her to physically punish him. His relationship with his siblings is also marked by constant conflicts.

Educational Background and Academic Performance:

At the age of six, "M" enrolled in School. His academic performance was average in the first and second grades, but in the third grade, his attendance declined significantly following his father's death, which led to him repeating the year.

His teacher reported that he is hyperactive, frequently disrupts the class, and distracts his classmates with his constant movements and behaviors, which often irritates his teacher. Additionally, he fails to bring his school supplies.

Sci. Educ. Innov. Context Mod. Probl. P-ISSN: 2790-0169 E-ISSN: 2790-0177 Issue 1, Vol. 8, 2025, IMCRA

His overall academic performance is very poor, with a first-term score of 4.22. His level in Arabic is extremely low, as he faces reading difficulties, which are evident in the following ways:

  •    Repeating words multiple times while reading.

  •    Substituting words with ones that do not exist in the text.

  •    Skipping words that he finds difficult to read.

  •    Omitting the initial letters of words, making them unclear or meaningless.

  •    Speaking with a sharp tone.

  •    Reading words and sentences in reverse order.

Additional Observations and Psychological Assessment

Through field visits and multiple interviews, "M" gradually became more comfortable and responsive. He admitted that he smokes in the streets with older individuals.

Social and Behavioral Aspects:

  •    His relationship with his teacher is strained; she often isolates him from his classmates, making him sit at the back of the classroom.

  •    His relationship with classmates is characterized by hostility, as he steals their supplies and physically assaults them to get money. This has led to frequent complaints from parents to the school principal.

  •    Outside of school, he roams the streets with older teenagers (18+ years old), who, according to his classmates' statements, are alcohol addicts.

Academic and Cognitive Performance:

  •    "M" struggles significantly with written expression, particularly in summarizing texts.

  •    His writing lacks coherence with the original text, and he makes numerous spelling, grammatical, and morphological mistakes.

  •    His text summaries are often incorrect copies of sentences, without logical order or extracted ideas.

  •    He fails to use punctuation and linking words properly.

  •    He repeats words excessively in his writing and performs poorly in spelling.

  •    He finds it difficult to describe images, further highlighting his expression difficulties.

Based on the table above and according to the scoring key of the diagnostic rating scale for reading difficulties applied to the case, the obtained score is 59, which corresponds to a moderate level of reading difficulties.

  • -    Results of the Colored Progressive Matrices Test by John Raven:

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The total score obtained after applying the Colored Progressive Matrices Test to the case was 20. Referring to the percentile rank table to determine the corresponding percentile score for the case’s age, the result was 50, which indicates an average level of cognitive ability.

Results of the Written Expression Skills Test:

Table No. (11)presents the results of the Written Expression Skills Test for the second case.

Written

Expression Skills

Use     of

Punctuation

Marks

Use     of

LinkingWords

Paragraph

Formulation Skill

Sentence

SkillsWith    the

Integrative

Situation

Question

1

2

3

4

5

6

Score

3

1

2

2

3

1

Total

4

4

4

5

Overall score

17

Based on the table above and according to the scoring key for the Written Expression Skills Test, the scores obtained in the sub-dimensions of the test (punctuation skills, use of conjunctions, and paragraph structuring) were 4 points each. Meanwhile, the case scored 5 points in the sentence structure dimension, which includes the integrative writing task. The overall test results indicate that the student has below-average proficiency in written expression skills, with a total score of 17.

Discussion of Results :

This study is based on the following hypothesis: "Students with reading difficulties also struggle with written expression."

After applying the study tools, specifically the Diagnostic Assessment Test for Reading Difficulties by Fathi Al-Zayat, the results indicated that both cases experienced reading difficulties ranging from moderate to severe, despite having an average level of intelligence. On the other hand, the Written Expression Skills Test in its various sub-dimensions revealed a noticeable weakness and decline in these skills among students with reading difficulties, despite the significant importance of this subject.

Written expression is considered a final integrative competence at the end of primary education. According to the fifth-grade Arabic language curriculum, it is stated that: "By the end of the fifth grade of primary education, the learner should be able to read, understand, and produce oral speeches and written texts of various types: dialogic, informative, narrative, and descriptive."

Furthermore, written expression serves as an integrative activity encompassing various Arabic language skills, as it appears at the end of each educational unit (at the end of the school week). It is regarded as the culmination of multiple Arabic language activities, including reading,

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oral expression, grammar, morphology, spelling, reading comprehension, memorization, recitation, and handwriting. These activities collectively form a fundamental pillar in developing and enhancing written expression skills, as emphasized by Ouein and Ouarib (2018, p. 872).

In this regard, Abdul Rahman Suleiman (2008, p. 359) states that reading and writing are two distinct processes. In reading, the student engages in reception, whereas in writing, they engage in expression; they acquire new information through reading but express it using words whose meanings they have previously learned. Consequently, students who struggle with reading often face difficulties in written expression, in addition to limited vocabulary, poor grammar usage, sentence structure issues, and punctuation errors.

William Heward (2009, p. 172) also points out that many children with learning difficulties suffer from problems in writing and spelling, and their performance is significantly lower than that of their peers in the same age group in all aspects of written expression, particularly in vocabulary, grammar, punctuation, and spelling.

This is further confirmed by studies conducted by (Ahmed Abdel Zaher, 2007; Abdel Fattah Shaddad, 2011; Mohamed Hamed, 2013; Amira Abdel Fattah, 2014; Walaa Abu Sarea, 2014), which highlight that students' poor performance in written expression skills persists across different educational levels. To such an extent that anyone involved in Arabic language education acknowledges the weak writing performance of students at all educational stages (Iman Atiya, 2017, p. 517).

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Writing expression requires students to possess high-level cognitive and linguistic skills, including the ability to identify main ideas and demonstrate creativity characterized by originality, novelty, and modernity (Al-Ahwal, 2018). Despite the significance of written expression, which demands precision, efficiency, and the careful selection of appropriate linguistic structures to convey ideas and meanings effectively, numerous educational studies have highlighted a significant weakness in students' writing skills. These studies have also emphasized that teaching methods remain traditional and do not match the importance of the subject.

Research conducted by (Abu Shrekh, 2016; Abu Subha, 2010; Al-Ahwal, 2018; Sama, 2013; Al-Masri, 2006; Najjar, 2015; Al-Nada, 2008) attributes this deficiency to multiple factors. For instance, Al-Ahwal (2018) suggests that students' weakness in written expression stems from neglect and insufficient attention during writing lessons, ineffective teaching methods, and a lack of innovation and creativity among teachers in addressing students' deficiencies (Abu Razek, 2020, p. 4).

Abu Shrekh (2016) categorizes these causes into three groups: teacher-related factors, student-related factors, and general factors. Some of these include family neglect, lack of concentration, mental distraction, and the limited time allocated for writing sessions. Other contributing factors include teachers using colloquial language in class, failing to prioritize written expression by scheduling only one writing session per instructional unit (approximately once a month), the absence of a dedicated children's library in schools, students' lack of reading habits, teachers' failure to correct writing errors, and the absence of encouragement within the classroom. Encouragement plays a crucial role in fostering students' creativity in written expression. All these factors have contributed to the decline in students' writing skills and their overall academic performance in this area.

Conclusion

Students with reading difficulties exhibit weaknesses in written expression skills, which include failing to follow the correct methodology in structuring their writing (introduction, body, and conclusion), improper use of punctuation and linking words (such as conjunctions), as well as frequent word repetition and grammatical, morphological, and syntactic errors in their written compositions.

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Through this study, we assessed the level of expressive skills in two students with reading difficulties by applying three tests. We administered the Reading Learning Difficulties Test by Fathi Al-Zayat to determine the severity of their difficulties, followed by Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices to measure their intelligence quotient, and finally, the Written Expression Skills Test by Nasreen Jalal. After analyzing the results, we found that students with reading difficulties exhibit weak expressive skills, making them unable to write fluently, construct logical arguments, or use punctuation correctly. Therefore, it is recommended that teachers closely monitor such students, implement targeted programs to correct expressive errors, and encourage them to engage in independent reading.

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations can be made:

  •    Encourage and motivate students to read, engage in discussions, and participate in classroom debates.

  •    Teachers should avoid using colloquial language in the classroom.

  •    Emphasize oral expression activities in class to help students develop a linguistic repertoire that can be transferred to written expression.

  •    Establish small libraries in every school to promote reading habits.

  •    Allow students to choose their own writing topics based on their interests, fostering creativity in their writing.

  •    Discuss students' written work in class and correct their mistakes, regardless of their type.

  •    Instill a spirit of competition among students, as it is one of the most effective ways to enhance their performance and skills.

  •    Since Arabic language teachers and learners face challenges in teaching and learning written expression, these difficulties should be studied further to develop appropriate solutions that will help improve students' linguistic proficiency.

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