Manifestations of Reading Errors among a Sample of Fifth Grade Primary Pupils

RESEARCH ARTICLE Manifestations of Reading Errors among a Sample of Fifth Grade Primary Pupils Boucebsi Abdelaziz Doctor (PhD) Faculty of Psychology, Department of Psychology, Abdelhamid Mehri University Constantine 2; Laboratory of Psychological and Educational Applications Algeria Email: ; Orcid: ID 0009 - 0004 - 7449 – 4848 Ouada Fathi Doctor (PhD) Faculty of Psychology, Department of Psychology, Abdelhamid Mehri University Constantine 2, Laboratory of Psychological and Educational Applications Algeria Email: ; Orcid: 0009 - 0008 - 9567 - 4265 z Doi Serial               Keywords Reading manifestations, reading errors, repetition, inversion, fifth grade primary pupils, reading time. Abstract The study aims to identify the manifestations and types of reading errors among a sample of fifth grade primary pupils. The sample included 55 pupils, among whom 25 exhibited reading difficulties, while 30 were of average to above-average performance (typical pupils). To collect data, the Holiday Text Test by Dr. Saliha Ghellab was used. Employing a descriptive-analytical approach, the study revealed various types of errors, including omission, addition, repetition, substitution, and inversion, although these errors appeared in varying proportions and order across the two groups. The study also found a relationship between reading speed and the number of reading errors. Citation Boucebsi A., Ouada F. (2025). Manifestations of Reading Errors among a Sample of Fifth Grade Primary Pupils. Science, Education and Innovations in the Context ofModern Problems, 8(6), 241-259; doi:10.56352/sei/8.6.26. Licensed © 2025 The Author(s). Published by Science, Education and Innovations in the context of modern problems (SEI) by IMCRA - International Meetings and Journals Research Association (Azerbaijan). This is an open access article under the CC BY license . Received: 06.01.2025 Accepted: 17.04.2025 Published: 11.05.2025 (available online)

Reading is considered one of the fundamental language skills, as it relies on the verbal repertoire and linguistic abilities that pupils acquire at the beginning of their learning journey. A pupil’s readiness to learn the skill of reading depends on their cognitive and physical maturity, the degree of difficulty or ease they encounter with the skill, its social function, and the personal or general goals it helps them achieve. Just as pupils differ in their intellectual and emotional capacities and learning abilities, they also differ in reading achievement (Fahim Mostafa, 1998). Therefore, reading activity holds critical importance in the educational process and in subsequent stages of academic achievement, especially during primary school, where special emphasis is placed on this activity.

Proper acquisition of reading begins with connecting the written form of letters to their spoken sounds, progressing to reading words and understanding their meanings, then assembling words into grammatically and semantically correct sentences, and ultimately reading a text at a normal pace. This process includes forming a general idea and identifying specific details from the text, understanding its content, and drawing pragmatic conclusions from it. However, according to Kyle and Fayol (2000), by the end of primary school, pupils’ reading levels vary—some read fluently, while others experience varying degrees of reading difficulty, with some showing a clear inability to learn to read. These difficulties may have apparent causes such as low intelligence levels, certain neurological conditions, or may stem from familial, social, or educational factors.

Some pupils may struggle to recognize letters or words, suggesting a possible disruption in visual information processing or in underlying cognitive processes (such as phonological awareness or visual perception), which are essential to acquiring reading skills. These disruptions often result in numerous reading errors that differ in type and severity from one pupil to another. This raises questions: Are these errors linked to a dysfunction in specific cognitive processes? Is there a variation in the type or types of errors committed?

From this perspective, studying the manifestations of reading errors that emerge during reading activity becomes necessary. Understanding the types and manifestations of these errors is crucial in helping teachers comprehend the process of reading acquisition and development, as well as identifying signs of dysfunction and addressing them before they worsen. According to Bond and others (1986), it is natural for children to make reading errors that range in severity from simple to complex, potentially leading to severe reading disabilities, which calls for early study of these indicators and manifestations (Al-Hawamdeh et al., 2000, p. 109). It is from this standpoint that the present study was undertaken to describe and analyze the manifestations of reading errors among fifth grade primary pupils.

Problem Statement:

This alphabetic system corresponds to what is referred to as the assembly-to-lexicon route (the lexicon being the mental dictionary of words). Studies that have followed the same children during their reading acquisition show that mastery of decoding and word recognition is the key condition for successful reading. Readers who perform well in decoding tend to make more progress later in reading, as they are able to retrieve the phonological form of a word stored in long-term memory directly through the orthographic procedure, which aligns with the addressing route.

Based on research in cognitive psychology and neuroscience, several models have been proposed to explain reading activity and acquisition. These models distinguish between various levels of processing visual, phonological, semantic, morphological, syntactic, and pragmatic each of which involves specific knowledge, processing, and procedures for encoding information (Gombert, 1990).

A child's acquisition of reading and mastery of its mechanisms likely occurs through different stages and may involve stumbling blocks along the way, resulting in errors. These may include letter-level errors such as distorting a letter’s pronunciation (often due to confusion between phonetically similar sounds), omitting letters from words (e.g., ḥ ul ū l → ḥū l), substituting one letter for another (e.g., al- ṣ a ḥ r āʼ → al- ṭ a ḥ r āʼ ), or reversing the order of letters (e.g., ta ʿū d → t ūʿ ad). These errors result in semantic distortions or meaningless words. Other errors include substituting entire words—whether similar in meaning, shape, or completely different—such as manzil (house) becoming d ā r, ma ʿ zil, or mazil.

In order to identify the manifestations of reading errors among pupils, the idea for this study emerged with the aim of identifying and analyzing the reading errors committed by fifth grade primary pupils. Accordingly, the following research question was posed:

What are the main manifestations of reading errors among fifth grade primary pupils?Significance of the Study:

• •    The importance of this study lies in the following:

• •    It addresses a highly important topic—reading and the difficulties pupils face while learning it.

• •    It sheds light on the analysis and study of reading errors made by pupils during the reading acquisition process.

• •    The results of this study can be used to develop a remedial strategy to address reading difficulties.

Objectives and Hypotheses of the Study:

This study aims to:

• •    Identify the main reading errors committed by pupils during reading activities.

• •    Classify reading errors among fifth grade primary pupils.

• •    Determine and analyze the differences in the type and number of reading errors between pupils with average to aboveaverage performance and those with poor performance in reading.

• •    The following hypotheses are proposed:

• •    There is no difference in the manifestations of reading errors between the two groups (average/good vs. below average/poor).

• •    The order and frequency of reading errors do not differ between the two groups (average/good vs. below average/poor).

• •    There is a relationship between the time spent reading and the rate of reading errors.

Scope of the Study:

This study was based on a sample of fifth grade primary pupils. The fieldwork was conducted on a sample consisting of 55 pupils (31 boys and 24 girls) from four primary schools located in the districts of El Harrouch and Sidi Mezghiche.

The study and the administration of the test were carried out over a period of two months (April and May 2024).

Operational Definitions:

• •    Reading Errors (Manifestations): These refer to the mistakes made by the pupil during reading, which appear in the form of omission , substitution , addition , repetition , inversion , or confusion . The type and number of errors committed are determined using the Holiday Text Test developed by researcher Saliha Ghellab.

• •    Reading Speed and Time: The amount of time a pupil takes to read the entire text. It is measured using a stopwatch. The standard time allocated for reading the text is three minutes .

• •    Pupils with Average to Above-Average Reading Performance: A group of fifth grade primary pupils who demonstrate a medium to good or excellent level of reading performance, scoring 5 out of 10 or higher in the reading subject.

• •    Pupils with Poor Reading Performance: A group of fifth grade primary pupils who demonstrate a below-average to poor level of reading performance, scoring less than 5 out of 10 in the reading subject.

Previous Studies:❖    Desh and Tashma Study (2019):

This study aimed to describe and analyze reading and spelling errors in the Arabic language among a sample of fourth grade primary pupils. The sample included 33 pupils, of whom 13 exhibited weaknesses in reading and spelling, while 19 were of average or above-average performance.

The study revealed the presence of reading and spelling errors, such as omission, addition, substitution, repetition, inversion, confusion, and errors specific to the Arabic language. It also confirmed a correlational relationship between reading speed and the number of errors, and found statistically significant differences between pupils with language difficulties and typical pupils in both the number of errors and the reading time.

• ❖    Ben Chena Amel El-Kheir and Dhabaa Mariam Study (2022):

This study aimed to identify the main manifestations of recognition errors in oral reading among pupils with reading difficulties in the third grade of primary school. The research was conducted on a sample of third grade pupils, using a diagnostic test for word recognition difficulties and familiar word reading. The test was designed to assess reading difficulties and included key reading skills that pupils are expected to master by the end of the second grade. The sample consisted of 20 pupils who exhibited difficulties in word recognition as measured by the test.

The results showed that the pupils suffered from several types of errors, including:

• •    Reading words that are visually or phonetically similar

• •    Difficulty pronouncing tanween (nunation)

• •    Difficulty reading words containing a shadda (gemination)

Additionally, the study found no statistically significant differences in the mean scores of oral reading error skills in the test that could be attributed to the gender variable .

• ❖    Fergoui Mariam Study (2023):

This study aimed to shed light on the difficulties in learning to read among primary school pupils in Algeria and to explore how these difficulties can be addressed to prevent academic achievement problems. The study sought to identify the causes, types, and symptoms of reading difficulties and concluded by proposing remedial methods and strategies to deal with these difficulties and reduce their severity.

• ❖    Beddaoui and Ouellibren Study (2022):

The objective of this study was to diagnose reading difficulties and determine their prevalence among primary school pupils at Youssef Dammarji School in the city of Miliana, Aïn Defla Province, as well as to examine gender differences in the prevalence of reading difficulties. A preliminary sample of 30 pupils (boys and girls) was selected. The study was conducted using a set of diagnostic tools, including the Raven Intelligence Test and a diagnostic rating scale for reading difficulties.

After data analysis, the results revealed:

• •    A high prevalence rate of reading difficulties estimated at 34.84% of the total sample.

• •    No significant gender differences in the prevalence of reading difficulties.

• ❖    Virginie Leclercq, Caroline Viriot-Goeldel, and Corinne Gallet Study (2019):

This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a program designed to detect and treat word recognition difficulties among primary school pupils. The participants were assessed at the beginning of the school year using a word recognition test in order to identify pupils experiencing such difficulties. The sample was then divided into two groups:

• •    The first group received intensive remedial sessions based on a program that focused on training pupils to master decoding mechanisms and to develop their mental lexicon .

• •    The second group followed a standard school curriculum without any specialized intervention.

At the end of the school year, the pupils were reassessed. The results showed significant improvement in the word recognition skills of the group that had undergone the remedial program, in comparison to the pupils who had followed the regular curriculum.

• ❖    Mohamed Saad Bakri Study (2018):

This study focused on examining the effectiveness of a phonological awareness-based unit in addressing spelling errors among fourth grade primary pupils. A sample of 60 female pupils from Beni Madi Primary School for Girls was selected and divided into two groups:

• •    An experimental group of 30 pupils, who received phonological awareness training over a period of five weeks, and

• •    A control group of 30 pupils, who did not receive the training.

The results indicated significant differences between the experimental and control groups in the post-test spelling assessment, demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed unit in improving spelling skills among pupils.

• ❖    Mohamed Al-Hawamdeh Study (2010):

This study aimed to describe and analyze oral reading errors among third grade primary pupils and to assess their proficiency in language components (phonological, syntactic, and semantic systems). The study sample consisted of 22 pupils, equally divided between boys and girls.

The research employed Goodman's (1972) Reading Error Analysis Checklist, which is widely used in similar studies.

The findings revealed that the most common errors were substitution errors, followed by omission, and then addition errors. The study also showed no statistically significant differences attributable to the gender variable.

• ❖    Lyne Bessette Study (2019):

This study aimed to track the development mechanisms of reading fluency and its relationship to the reading curriculum by examining certain components such as accuracy and speed among pupils from second to fourth grade, including both typical pupils and those with reading difficulties.

The study was conducted on a sample of 260 pupils:

• •    149 pupils participated in a special program designed to improve reading skills (experimental group),

• •    111 pupils followed regular classroom programs with their teachers (control group).

The results showed that pupils who received the special program demonstrated notable improvement in reading fluency, especially in accuracy and speed, compared to the control group across all grade levels.

The findings also indicated that pupils with learning difficulties showed greater improvement in reading speed than in accuracy, which was attributed to poor word comprehension. In contrast, typical pupils tended to link words to their meanings in an effort to understand the text, leading to a more balanced development of both accuracy and speed.

Commentary on Previous Studies:

Previous studies have addressed the topic of reading and learning difficulties, aiming to identify these difficulties and determine their prevalence among pupils. They have focused on describing and analyzing the errors that accompany the reading acquisition process and on developing remedial programs to help reduce these difficulties.

In contrast, the present study seeks to describe the patterns of reading errors among pupils at various performance levels, while also identifying the causes and contributing factors behind these errors. Additionally, it aims to rank the most frequent error types observed in pupils at the end of the primary stage and transitioning into middle school. The study also attempts to determine the relationship between reading speed and the occurrence of errors.

General Principles of the Function of Reading:

There are several principles that govern the function of reading in typical individuals, summarized as follows:

• 1.    Fluency: The reading function is characterized by fluency; skilled readers recognize words quickly, effortlessly, and automatically. It relies on mastery of decoding to identify words with speed, accuracy, and ease.

• 2.    Constructive and Cumulative: Reading is a constructive process, where the individual derives meaning from the text based on their prior knowledge and experiences.

• 3.    Strategic Process: Reading is a strategic activity that requires the reader to use mental flexibility in selecting strategies appropriate to the nature of the text, the purpose of reading, and the reader’s familiarity with the content.

• 4.    Motivated Activity: Reading is driven by motivation, requiring sustained attention. Maintaining this attention is difficult unless the text is engaging and stimulating, offering new ideas and insights.

• 5.    Lifelong Process: Reading is a lifelong activity that improves with increased practice, and it deepens through repetition and engagement. Progress occurs gradually with cognitive maturation and ongoing exposure. (Fathi Mostafa Al-Zayyat, 1998)

• 6.    High Attention and Inference: Reading involves intense attention to real-world facts, the ability to draw inferences, recognize similarities, and focus on distinctions expressed through words chosen by the readers. (Solso, 1992)

t is clear from the above that reading is a fundamental function in our daily lives, as it enables individuals to acquire various forms of knowledge, facilitating the comprehension of environmental stimuli. Reading also involves multiple cognitive abilities and processes, the most important of which include attention, visual perception, memory, and mental representation—all of which highlight the significance of this function.

Since reading is a dynamic mental function composed of several processes, many researchers have proposed conceptualizations or models to explain how this function operates. Among the most notable are:

• 1.    Bottom-Up Models:

Bottom-up models propose that information from the text forms the basis of the reader's knowledge, and that this information passes through several stages of processing until the reader ultimately reaches general and lasting information.

Some of the most well-known models in this category include: Gough's Model (1972), LaBerge and Samuels' Model (1984)

Researchers have outlined the main components of the reading function as follows:

• •    Attention: According to researchers, reading consists of two main components: decoding and comprehension. The first focuses on the visual analysis of words, while the second deals with extracting the meaning of the encoded material. Both components require attention, the level of which varies depending on the reader’s skill and prior experience.

• •    Visual Memory: Responsible for extracting the visual features of stimuli (words), analyzing the letters that compose them, and converting them into alphabetic patterns.

• •    Auditory Memory : Involves analyzing sounds, syllables, and verbal input structures, helping to extract meaning by linking visual memory with semantic memory. However, skilled readers often bypass this channel, accessing meaning directly.

• •    Episodic Memory: Recalls specific events related to people, places, or times, and organizes information based on temporal and spatial characteristics.

• •    Semantic Memory: Stores the individual's knowledge base and assists in decoding unfamiliar words by providing context and meaning.

• •    Feedback Loops: Feedback from semantic memory is sent to auditory and visual memory, influencing information processing at earlier stages. This helps the reader predict upcoming words based on knowledge of the text or by guessing a word from its initial letter.

• •    Semantic Network : A network of stored information and representations at various levels, from the lowest level (letters) to full words. It forms a web of associations through which individuals interpret texts differently, based on their stored ideas and relational links in memory.

• 2.    Top-Down Models:

Some researchers refer to top-down models as psycholinguistic models or information processing models (Block, 1997). In these models, the reading process begins with the highest level of information, namely the reader’s prior knowledge of the world, which is used to form continuous hypotheses about the words encountered in the text. This prior knowledge helps the reader recognize words, read the text accurately, and grasp its meaning. In other words, this information supports the understanding of basic details within the text.

One of the most prominent examples of this approach is Goodman’s Model (1971), which views reading as a psycholinguistic guessing game. According to Goodman, the reading process involves the following steps:

• •    Sweeping the eyes across the written line (from right to left in Arabic, or left to right in Western cultures).

• •    Fixating the eyes on the word intended to be read.

• •    Selecting cues based on the reader’s prior experiences and the information stored in long-term memory.

• •    Formulating perceptual hypotheses about a part of the text, based on what the reader sees and expects to see.

• •    Searching memory for cues to enrich and refine the perceptual hypothesis.

• •    Storing the hypothesis if correct in short-term memory, and verifying its accuracy through contextual meaning.

• •    If the hypothesis is incorrect, the reader returns to the written cues to identify the source of conflict between the

hypothesis and the linguistic structure of the text.

Method and Tools:

In this section, we present the study methodology, the tools used, a description of the sample, and a discussion of the results.

Methodology and Study Procedures:

The descriptive-analytical method was employed to describe and analyze the manifestations and types of reading errors, as well as to determine the percentage of each type of error among the two groups (average/good vs. below average/poor performance).

The study was conducted in four primary schools located in the districts of El Harrouch and Sidi Mezghiche, in the Wilaya of Skikda. It was carried out during the third term of the 2024 school year (April–May).

Study Sample:

The study sample consisted of 55 fifth-grade primary pupils (31 boys and 24 girls). The sample was selected using a stratified sampling method, dividing the pupils into two groups:

• •    The first group included pupils who demonstrated an average to above-average level in reading activities.

• •    The second group included pupils with a below-average to poor level in reading.

This classification was carried out under the guidance of teachers and was based on the pupils’ reading scores. The individuals were then randomly selected from both strata.

The following table presents the characteristics of the sample based on gender and reading performance level.

Table (1): Characteristics of the Sample by Gender and Reading Performance Level

Gender	Below Average / Poor Performance		Above Average / Good Performance
Males	% 30.90	17	% 25.45	14
Females	% 14.54	8	% 29.09	16
Total	% 45.45	25	% 54.54	30

It appears from Table (1) that the percentage of pupils with average to above-average performance reached 54.54%, i.e., 30 pupils (13 females and 17 males), while the percentage of pupils with below-average performance reached 45.45% (11 females and 14 males).

Study Tools:

As this is a descriptive study, interviews and observation were used to identify the study sample and control its variables, as well as to select the appropriate tests for measurement. In the pilot phase, the focus was on interviewing teachers to explain the objectives of the study and the characteristics of the sample, in order to receive their assistance and guidance and to determine the appropriate time for administering the tests.

Administration of the Reading Test:

After selecting the sample with the help of teachers and by reviewing pupils’ grade sheets, individuals were identified in each fifth-grade class. Pupils were also observed to confirm whether they met the characteristics of the sample, either for inclusion or exclusion. Teachers explained to the participating pupils the purpose and objective of the test and how it would be administered, in order to ensure their understanding and obtain accurate test results.

Reading Test:

This study used the “Holiday Text” Test developed by Saliha Ghellab, which is a text-based reading test...

Test Procedure:

The test was administered individually. The pupil sat in a comfortable position, the text was placed in front of them, and they were asked to examine it. Once ready, they began reading aloud upon signal, while a stopwatch was used to record the time taken to read the text. The researcher marked on a correction sheet the words misread, classified each type of error, and recorded the reading time.

Test Correction:

The correction process was carried out in the following steps:

• •    Identifying responses that reflected the sample characteristics.

• •    Recording the errors made by each participant, classifying the type of error and noting its frequency in a table, based on the theoretical framework for classifying reading errors (substitution, omission, addition, inversion, repetition, confusion).

• •    Recording the reading time for each individual in a separate table.