Reducing thermal noise in the mirrors of gravitational wave detectors. A short review and some new results

Автор: Pinto I.M.

Журнал: Пространство, время и фундаментальные взаимодействия @stfi

Рубрика: Гравитация, космология и фундаментальные поля

Статья в выпуске: 3-4 (44-45), 2023 года.

Бесплатный доступ

Optical coatings play a crucial role in interferometric detectors of gravitational waves. A short up-to-date review of related research lines and results is proposed, including new methods and results from the Author’s resarch group.

Gravitational wave detectors, optical coatings, thermal noise

Короткий адрес: https://sciup.org/142240756

IDR: 142240756 | DOI: 10.17238/issn2226-8812.2023.3-4.229-246

Список литературы Reducing thermal noise in the mirrors of gravitational wave detectors. A short review and some new results

J. Aasi et al., Advanced LIGO, Class. Quantum Grav. 32 (2015) 074001
F. Acernese et al., Advanced Virgo: a 2nd Generation GW Detector, Class. Quantum Grav. 32 (2015) 024001
T. Akutsu et al., Overview of KAGRA: Detector Design and Construction History, Progr. Th. Experim. Phys. 2021 (2021) 05A101
LSC, Instrument Science White Paper, LIGO Document T2200384 (2022) https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-T2200384
S. Gossler et al., Coating-Free Mirrors for High Precision Interferometric Experiments, Phys. Rev. A76 (2007) 053810
A.G. Gurkovsky et al., Reducing Thermal Noise in Future Gravitational Wave Detectors by Employing Khalili Etalons, Phys. Lett. A. 375 (2011) 4147
D. Heinert et al., Calculation of Thermal Noise in Grating Reflectors, Phys. Rev. D. 88 (2013) 042001
I.M. Pinto, M. Principe, R. DeSalvo, Reflectivity and Thickness Optimization, Ch. 12 in Optical Coatings and Thermal Noise in Precision Measurements, G. Harry et al., Eds., Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge (UK), 2012, ISBN 978-1-107-00338-5.
D.R.M. Crookes et al., Experimental Measurements of Mechanical Dissipation Associated with Dielectric Coatings Formed Using 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 , 𝑇𝑎2𝑂5 and 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3, Class. Quantum Grav. 23 (2006) 4953
G M. Harry, Material Downselect Rationale and Directions, LIGO Document G-G050088-00-R https://dcc.ligo.org/DocDB/0035/G050088/000/G050088-00.pdf
A.F. Brooks et al., Direct Measurement of Absorption-InducedWavefront Distortion in High Optical Power Systems, Appl. Opt. 48 (2009) 355
G.M. Harry et al., Titania-Doped Tantala/Silica Coatings for Gravitational-Wave Detection, Class. Quantum Grav. 24 (2007) 405
R. Flaminio et al., A Study of Coating Mechanical and Optical Losses in View of Reducing Mirror Thermal Noise in Gravitational Wave Detectors, Class Quantum Grav. 27 (2010) 084030
R.M. Netterfeld, M. Gross, Investigation of Ion-Beam-Sputtered Silica-Titania Mixtures for Use in Gravitational Wave Interferometer Optics, Proc. OSA-OIC-2007, paper ThD2
J. Franc et al., Mirror Thermal Noise in Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Detectors Operating at Room and Cryogenic Temperature, Einstein Telescope Note ET-021-09, arXiv:0912.0107
M. Granata et al., Optical and Mechanical Properties of Ion-Beam-Sputtered 𝑀𝑔𝐹2 Thin Films for Gravitational-Wave Interferometers, Phys. Rev. Appl. 17 (2022) 034058
M. Bischi et al., Characterization of Ion-Beam-Sputtered 𝐴𝑙𝐹3 Thin Films for Gravitational-Wave Interferometers, Phys. Rev. Applied 18 (2022) 054074
G. Favaro et al., Measurement and Simulation of Mechanical and Optical Properties of Sputtered Amorphous 𝑆𝑖𝐶 Coatings, Phys. Rev. Appl. 18 (2022) 044030
M. Segreti et al., Mechanical and Optical Characterization of Sputtered Amorphous GaN Thin Film for High-Reflectvity and Low-Loss Coatings, GWADW 2023 (poster) , https://agenda.infn.it/event/32907/contributions/200157/attachments/106040/149266/Poster_versione6-2.pdf
K. Craig et al., Mirror Coating Solution for the Cryogenic Einstein Telescope, Phys. Rev. Lett. 122 (2019) 231102 1
M. Fazio et al., Growth and Characterization of 𝑆𝑐2𝑂3 Doped 𝑇𝑎2𝑂5 Thin Films, Appl. Opt. 5 (2020) A106
A. Amato et al., Optical and Mechanical Properties of Ion-Beam-Sputtered 𝑁𝑏2𝑂5 and 𝑇𝑖𝑂2 − 𝑁𝑏2𝑂5 Thin Films for Gravitational-Wave Interferometers and an Improved Measurement of Coating Thermal Noise in Advanced LIGO, Phys. Rev. D. 103 (2021) 072001
M. Abernathy et al., Exploration of Co-sputtered 𝑇𝑎2𝑂5−𝑍𝑟𝑂2 Thin Films for Gravitational Wave Detectors, Class. Quantum Grav. 38 (2021) 195021
E. Lalande et al., Zirconia-Titania-Doped Tantala Optical Coatings for Low Mechanical Loss Bragg Mirrors, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A. 39 (2021) 1
M. Granata et al., Progress in the Measurement and Reduction of Thermal Noise in Optical Coatings for Gravitational-Wave Detectors , Appl. Opt. 59 (2020) A229
M. Fazio et al., Comprehensive Study of Amorphous Metal Oxide and 𝑇𝑎2𝑂5-based Mixed Oxide Coatings for Gravitational-Wave Detectors, Phys. Rev. D 105 (2022) 102008,
G. Vajente et al., Low Mechanical Loss TiO2:GeO2 Coatings for Reduced Thermal Noise in Gravitational Wave Interferometers, Phys. Rev. Lett. 127 (2021) 071101
S. Khadka et al.,Cryogenic Mechanical Loss of Amorphous Germania and Titania-Doped Germania Thin Films, Class. Quantum Grav. 40 (2023) 205002
A. Davenport, Investigation of 𝑇𝑖𝑂2 : 𝐺𝑒𝑂2 for High Reflector Stacks, LIGO document G2302140, https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-G2302140
E. Lalande et al, 𝐴𝑟 Transport and Blister Growth Kinetics in Titania-doped Germania-based Optical Coatings, LIGO Document P2300328, https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-P2300328
G.I. McGhee et al., Titania Mixed with Silica: A Low Thermal-Noise Coating Material for Gravitational-Wave Detectors, Phys. Rev. Lett. 131 (2023) 171401
I.M. Pinto et al., nm-Layered Amorphous Glassy Oxide Composites for 3rd Generation Interferometric Gravitational Wave Detectors, LIGO Document-G1401358 (2014), https://dcc.ligo.org/DocDB/0116/G1401358/001/G1401358.pdf
H.-W. Pan et al., Thickness-Dependent Crystallization on Thermal Anneal for Titania/Silica nm-Layer Composites Deposited by Ion-Beam Sputter Method, Opt. Express 22 (2014) 29847
P. Amico et al., Investigation on Mechanical Losses in 𝑇𝑖𝑂2/𝑆𝑖𝑂2 Dielectric Coatings, J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 32 (2006) 413
L.-C. Kuo et al., Low Cryogenic Mechanical Loss Composite Silica Thin Film for Low Thermal Noise Dielectric Mirror Coatings, Optics Lett. 44 (2019) 247
L.-C. Kuo et al., Annealing Effect on the Nano-meter Scale Titania/Silica Multi-layers for Mirror Coatings of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Waves Detector, Proc. of the 2019 PhotonIcs & Electromagnetics Research Symposium (PIERS), p. 2347
I. Pinto, Which Nanolayers are Worth a Try„ LIGO Document G2000413 (2020) https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-G2000413
I. Pinto, Nanolayered Silica/Alumina Composites, LIGO Document G2001499 (2020) https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-G2001499
B. Larsen et al., Crystallization in Zirconia Film Nano-Layered with Silica, Nanomaterials 11 (2021) 344
Le Yang et al., Structural Evolution that Affects the Room-Temperature Internal Friction of Binary Oxide Nanolaminates: Implications for Ultrastable Optical Cavities, ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 3 (2020) 12308
M. Steinecke et al., Quantizing Nanolaminates as Versatile Materials for Optical Interference Coatings, Appl. Optics 59 (2020) A236
D.E. Aspnes, Local Field Effects and Effectve-Medium Theory: a Microscopic Perspective, Am. J. Phys. 50 (1981) 704
O. Stenzel et al., Mixed Oxide Coatings for Optics, Appl. Opt. 50 (2011) C69
S. Barta, Effective Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio for the Particulate Composite, J. Appl. Phys. 75 (1994) 3258
M. Principe et al., Material Loss Angles from Direct Measurements of Broadband Thermal Noise, Phys. Rev. D. 91 (2015) 022005
K.S. Gilroy, W.A. Phillips, An Asymmetric Double-Well Potential Model for Structural Relaxation Processes in Amorphous Materials, Phil. Mag. B. 43 (1981) 735
A. Amato et al., Observation of a Correlation Between Internal Friction and Urbach Energy in Amorphous Oxides Thin Films, Sci. Rep. 10 (2020) 1670
R. Bassiri et al., Correlations Between the Mechanical Loss and Atomic Structure of Amorphous 𝑇𝑖𝑂2-doped 𝑇𝑎2𝑂5 Coatings, Acta Mater. 61 (2013) 1070
J.P. Trinastic et al., Molecular Dynamics Modeling of Mechanical Loss in Amorphous Tantala and Titania-Doped Tantala, Phys. Rev. B. 93 (2016) 014105
T. Damart, D. Rodney, Atomistic Study of Two-level Systems in Amorphous Silica, Phys. Rev. B. 97 (2018) 014201
K. Prasai et al., Annealing-Induced Changes in the Atomic Structure of Amorphous Silica, Germania, and Tantala Using Accelerated Molecular Dynamic, Phys. Stat. Sol. B. 258 (2021) 2000519
J. Jiang et al., Amorphous Zirconia-doped Tantala Modeling and Simulations using Explicit Multi- Element Spectral Neighbor Analysis Machine Learning Potentials (EME-SNAP), Phys. Rev. Mater. 7 (2023) 045602
M. Kim et al., Atomic Structure Characterization of Titania-doped Germania, LIGO Document G2301799, https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-G2301799
M. Turowski, et al., Practice-Oriented Optical Thin Film Growth Simulation via Multiple Scale Approach, Thin Solid Films 592 (2015) 240
F.V. Grigoriev, V.B. Sulimov, A.V.Tikhonravov, Application of a Large-Scale molecular dynamics approach to modelling the Deposition of 𝑇𝑖𝑂2 Thin Films, Computat. Mater. Sci. 188 (2021) 110202
F.V. Grigoriev, V.B. Sulimov,Atomistic Simulation of Physical Vapor Deposition of Optical Thin Films, Nanomaterials, 13 (2023) 1717
A. Alexandrovski et al., Photothermal Common-Path Interferometry (PCI): New Developments, SPIE Proceedings 7193 (2009) 71930D
K.V. Vlasova et al., High-sensitive Absorption Measurement in Transparent Isotropic Dielectrics with Time-resolved Photothermal Common-Path Interferometry, Appl. Opt., 57 (2018) 6318
J.R. Smith et al., Apparatus to Measure Optical Scatter of Coatings Versus Annealing Temperature, Proc. OSA-OIC 2019, FA.2
G.H. Ogin et al., Measuring the Thermo-Optic Response of Dielectric Stack Mirrors, Proc. OSA-OIC 2016, MB.7
E.M. Gretarsson, A.M. Gretarsson, Three Methods for Characterizing Thermo-Optic Noise in Optical Cavities, Phys. Rev. D. 98 (2018) 122004
E. Cesarini et al., A ‘Gentle’ Nodal Suspension for Measurements of the Acoustic Attenuation in Materials, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 80 (2009) 053904
G. Vajente et al., Method for the Experimental Measurement of Bulk and Shear Loss Angles in Amorphous Thin Films, Phys. Rev. D. 101 (2020) 042004
K. Numata et al., Wide-Band Direct Measurement of Thermal Fluctuations in an Interferometer, Phys. Rev. Lett. 91 (2003) 260602
E.D. Black et al., Direct Observation of Broadband Coating Thermal Noise in a Suspended Interferometer, Phys. Lett. A. 328 (2004) 1
T. Chalermsongsak et al., Broadband Measurement of Coating Thermal Noise in Rigid Fabry–Perot Cavities, Metrologia 52 (2015) 17
S. Gras, M. Evans, Direct Measurement of Coating Thermal Noise in Optical Resonators, Phys. Rev. D 98 (2018) 122001
R. Pedurand, Instrumentation for Thermal Noise Spectroscopy, PhD Thesis (2019), Univ. Lyon (FR), 2019, https://theses.hal.science/tel-02612035
G.D. Cole et al., Tenfold Reduction of Brownian Noise in High-Reflectivity Optical Coatings, Nature Photonics 7 (2013) 644
A.C. Lin et al., Epitaxial Growth of GaP/AlGaP Mirrors on Si for Low Thermal Noise Optical Coatings, Opt. Mater. Express 8 (2015) 1890
A.V. Cumming et al., Measurement of the Mechanical Loss of Prototype GaP/AlGaP Crystalline Coatings for Future Gravitational Wave Detectors, Class. Quantum Grav. 32 (2015) 035002
P.G. Murray et al., Cryogenic Mechanical Loss of a Single-Crystalline GaP Coating Layer for Precision Measurement Applications, Phys. Rev. D. 95 (2017) 042004
G.D. Cole et al., High-Performance Near- and Mid-Infrared Crystalline Coatings, Optica 3 (2016) 647
G.D. Cole et al., Substrate-Transferred GaAs/AlGaAs Crystalline Coatings for Gravitational-Wave Detectors, Appl. Phys. Lett. 122 (2023) 110502
M.L. Gorodetsky, Thermal Noises and Noise Compensation in High-Reflection Multilayer Coating, Phys. Lett. A. 372 (2008) 6813
M. Evans et al., Thermo-Optic Noise in Coated Mirrors for High-Precision optical Measurements, Phys. Rev. D. 78 (2008) 102003
T. Chalermsongsak et al., Coherent Cancellation of Photothermal Noise in 𝐺𝑎𝐴𝑠/𝐴𝑙0.92𝐺𝑎0.08𝐴𝑠 Bragg Mirrors, Metrologia 53 2016 860
S. Kryhin, E.D. Hall, V. Sudhir, Thermorefringent Noise in Crystalline Optical Materials, Phys. Rev. D. 107 (2023) 022001
J. Yu et al., Excess Noise and Photoinduced Effects in Highly Reflective Crystalline Mirror Coatings, Phys. Rev. X. 13 (2023) 041002
H.-W. Pan et al., Silicon Nitride Films Fabricated by a Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition Method for Coatings of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Detector, Phys. Rev. D. 87 (2018) 022004
D.-S. Tsai et al., Amorphous Silicon Nitride Deposited by an 𝑁𝐻3-free Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition Method for the Coatings of the Next Generation Laser Interferometer Gravitational Waves Detector, Class. Quantum Grav. 39 (2022) 15LT01
G.S. Wallace et al., Non-stoichiometric Silicon Nitride for Future Gravitational Wave Detectors, LIGO Document P-2300539 (2023), https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-P2300359
P. G. Murray et al., Ion-beam Sputtered Amorphous Silicon Films for Cryogenic Precision Measurement Systems, Phys. Rev. D 92 (2015) 062001
J. Steinlechner et al., Optical Absorption of Ion-Beam Sputtered Amorphous Silicon Coatings, Phys. Rev. D 93 (2016) 062005
J. Steinlechner et al., Silicon-Based Optical Mirror Coatings for Ultrahigh Precision Metrology and Sensing, Phys. Rev. Lett. 120 (2018) 3602
R. Birney et al., Amorphous Silicon with Extremely Low Absorption: Beating Thermal Noise in Gravitational Astronomy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 121 (2018) 191101
L. Terkowsky et al., Influence of Deposition Parameters on the Optical Absorption of Amorphous Silicon Thin Films, Phys. Rev. Res. 2 (2020) 033308
M. Molina-Ruiz, Hydrogen-Induced Ultralow Optical Absorption and Mechanical Loss in Amorphous Silicon for Gravitational-Wave Detectors, Phys. Rev. Lett. 131 (2023) 256902
M. Kinley-Hanlon et al., Update on Nanolayer 𝑎𝑆𝑖/𝑆𝑖𝑂2 Coatings and Ion Implantation (SIMOX) Layers for Mechanical Loss,LIGO Document G2300684 (2023) https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-G2300684
A. V. Vinogradov and Ya. B. Zel’dovich, X-ray and Far UV Multilayer Mirrors: Principles and Possibilities, Appl. Opt., 16 (1977) pp. 89-93
J.I. Larruquert, Reflectance Enhancement in the Extreme Ultraviolet and Soft X Rays by Means of Multilayers with More than Two Materials, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 19 (2002) pp. 391-397
J.I. Larruquert. Inreflectance: a New Function for the Optimization of Multilayers with Absorbing Materials, J. Opt. Soc. Am. A22 (2005) 1607.
J.I. Larruquert et al., Constructing Multilayers with Absorbing Materials, Chinese Opt. Lett. 8 (2010) 159
J. Agresti et al., Optimized Multilayer Dielectric Mirror Coatings for Gravitational Wave Interferometers, Proc. of SPIE, 6286 (2006) 628608,
A.E. Villar et al., Measurement of Thermal Noise in Multilayer Coatings with Optimized Layer Thickness, Phys. Rev. D 81 (2010) 122001
L.Pinard et al., Mirrors Used in the LIGO Interferometers for First Detection of Gravitational Waves, Appl. Optics 56 (2017) C11
D.V. Martynov et al., Sensitivity of the Advanced LIGO Detectors at the Beginning of Gravitational Wave Astronomy, Phys. Rev. D. 93 (2016) 112004,
N.M. Kondratiev, A.G. Gurkovsky, M.L. Gorodetsky, Thermal Noise and Coating Optimization in Multilayer Dielectric Mirrors, Phys. Rev. D. 84 (2011), 022001
V. Pierro et al., On the Performance Limits of Coatings for Gravitational Wave Detectors Made of Alternating Layers of Two Materials, Optical Mater. 96 (2019) 109269
J. Steinlechner et al., Thermal Noise Reduction and Absorption Optimization via Multimaterial Coatings, Phys. Rev. D 91 (2015) 042001
W. Yam, S. Gras, M. Evans, Multimaterial Coatings with Reduced Thermal Noise, Phys. Rev. D 91 (2015) 042002
J. Steinlechner, I.W. Martin, High Index Top Layer for Multimaterial Coatings, Phys. Rev. D. 93 (2016) 102001
S. Tait et al., ’Demonstration of the Multimaterial Coating Concept to Reduce Thermal Noise in Gravitational-Wave Detectors, Phys. Rev. Lett. 125 (2020) 011102
V. Pierro et al., Ternary Quarter Wavelength Coatings for Gravitational Wave Detector Mirrors: Design Optimization via Exhaustive Search, Phys. Rev. Res. 3 (2021) 023172
M. Granata et al., Present Results and Future Perspectives of SiNx-based Multi-Material Mirror Coatings, LIGO Document G2300642 https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-G2300642
C.A. Coello-Coello et al., Evolutionary Multiobjective Optimization: Open Research Areas and Some Challenges Lying Ahead , Complex & Intelligent Sys. 6 (2020) 221
C. Blum, A. Roli, Metaheuristics in Combinatorial Optimization: Overview and Conceptual Comparison, ACM Comput. Surv. 35 (2003) 268
A. Konak, D.W. Coit, A.E. Smith, Multi-Objective Optimization Using Genetic Algorithms: A Tutorial, J. RESS 91 (2006) 992
M. Dorigo et al., Ant Colony Optimization: Artificial Ants as a Computational Intelligence Technique, IEEE Computat. Intell. Mag., 1 (2006) 28
D. Hadka , P.M. Reed , BORG: An Auto-Adaptive Many-Objective Evolutionary Computing Framework, Evolutionary Computation 21 (2013) 231
http://borgmoea.org/
I.M. Pinto et al., Optimized Ternary Coatings : Options and Performance, LIGO Document G2201509 https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-G2201509
R. Schnabel et al., Building Blocks for Future Detectors: Silicon Test Masses and 1550 nm Laser Light, J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 228 (1010) 012029.
R.X. Adikhari et al.,A Cryogenic Silicon Interferometer for Gravitational-wave Detection, Class. Quantum Grav. 37 (2020) 165003
P.R. Saulson, Fundamentals of Interferometric Gravitational Wave Detectors, World Scientific, Singapore, 2017, ISBN 978-9813143074
Yu. Levin, Internal Thermal Noise in the LIGO Test Masses: a Direct Approach, Phys. Rev D. 57 (1998) 659
M.L. Gorodetsky, Thermal Noises and Noise Compensation in High-Reflection Multilayer Coating, Phys. Lett. A. 372 (2008) 6813
V.B. Braginsky, M.L. Gorodetsky, S.P. Vyatchanin, Compendium of Thermal Noises in Optical Mirrors, Ch. 3 in Optical Coatings and Thermal Noise in Precision Measurements, G. Harry et al. (Eds.), Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge (UK), 2012, ISBN 978-1-107-00338-5.
G.M. Harry et al., Optical Coatings for Gravitational Wave Detection, Proc. SPIE 5527 (2004) 33
A.G. Gurkovsky and S.P. Vyatchanin, The Thermal Noise in Multilayer Coatings, Phys. Lett. A. 374 (2010) 3267
M. Fejer, Effective Medium Description of Multilayer Coatings , LIGO Document T-T2100186, https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-T2100186
K. Somiya, K. Yamamoto, Coating thermal Noise of a Finite-Size Cylindrical Mirror, Phys. Rev. D. 79 (2009) 102004
T. Hong et al., Brownian Thermal Noise in Multilayer Coated Mirrors, Phys. Rev. D. 87 (2013) 082001
V. Pierro et al., Perspectives on Beam-Shaping Optimization for Thermal-Noise Reduction in Advanced Gravitational-Wave Interferometric Detectors: Bounds, Profiles, and Critical Parameters, Phys. Rev. D. 76 (2007) 122003
https://cosmicexplorer.org/
https://apps.et-gw.eu/tds/?call_file=ET-0028A-20_EinsteinTelescopeScienceCaseDe.pdf
I.W. Martin et al., Low Temperature Mechanical Dissipation of an Ion-Beam Sputtered Silica Film, Class. Quantum Grav. 31 (2014) 035019
I.W. Martin et al., Comparison of the Temperature Dependence of the Mechanical Dissipation in Thin Films of 𝑇𝑎2𝑂5 and 𝑇𝑎2𝑂5 doped with 𝑇𝑖𝑂2, Class. Quantum Grav. 26 (2009) 155012
M. Granata et al., Cryogenic Measurements of Mechanical Loss of High-Reflectivity Coating and Estimation of Thermal Noise, Optics Lett. 38 (2013) 5268
E. Hirose et al., Mechanical Loss of a Multilayer Tantala/Silica Coating on a Sapphire Disk at Cryogenic Temperatures: Toward the KAGRA GravitationalWave Detector, Phys. Rev. D. 90 (2014) 102004

Еще

Статья научная