Role of power distance phenomena in blended learning in higher education post-COVID-19

Bharti Wadhwa, Priya Grover, Sabyasachi Dasgupta, Aakank-sha Uppal. Role of power distance phenomena in blended learning in higher education post-Covid-19. Cardiometry; Issue 22; May 2022; p. 343-350; DOI: 10.18137/cardiome-try.2022.22.343350; Available from:

Since the inception of humanity, education has played a very important role in the growth and development of human beings. Education already existed in the 17th century and the beginning of the 19th century, that education became scientific and independent. It was only by the end of this century that education entered universities as a major. In the 1920s, universities started establishing specialized educational research institutions that stressed educational research, in a study by Wang. The field of education has always been highly dynamic and mobile. Ancient pedagogies, which were initiated as a “sage on the stage” with time-shifted to education with basic teaching methods using instruction, discovery, and inquiry as modes of conversation between the teachers and taught, studied Raman [1]. The second half of the 20th century saw a paradigm shift in the education sector with the emergence of a new theory of andragogy, specifically for adult education, making a difference in the quality of the teaching-learning process. With the rapid technological changes in the education sector, active production, collaboration, sharing, publishing, and social bookmarking are now the need of the hour, in a study by Raman.

1.1    Traditional learning

In their research, Doskocil described traditional learning as face-to-face courses. Many researchers found that traditional learning is a learning process in groups.

It is based on a continuous way that requires students’ involvement. In traditional classroom teaching, there is a teacher-led lecture. The students follow certain rules in traditional learning [2]. In traditional settings, the student’s physical presence and the set time are important requirements for traditional learning. In their research, Salcedo found that there is face-to-face instruction, and also students ask questions in this mode of learning. It also allows teacher responses and flexibility in content delivery for teachers.

1.2    Online teaching

1.3    Comparative analysis of traditional versus online learning

In their study, Rozewski et al. found much dissimilarity between traditional and online learning, and it happens due to the education process and environmental differences. These differences are in teaching, characteristics of learning, teaching processes, and the pace of learning for the students. They also added that how the knowledge is transferred in different modes is significantly different. Body language and interpersonal techniques play a major role in traditional learning. In contrast, for online learning, there is a limited way to transfer information [5]. The usage of technology is higher in online learning, and the instructor is more dependent on the text presentation. It was also found by Howard et al. that the time and group are fixed, and the place of learning is all set in the traditional learning process. However, online learning depends on the availability of both students and the instructor. There is always a choice for the instructor to select time and space.

1.4    Growing importance of blended learning in higher education post-covid-19

In their research, Keengwe and T.T. Kidd found that many educational institutions in higher education move towards online or blended learning to maintain 344 | Cardiometry | Issue 22. May 2022

a competitive edge. Learning can be possible for diverse students [6]. Heinze and Procter defined blended learning as a type of learning. There is a proper combination of different modes of delivery and teaching models, and the communication between the instructor and students is transparent. Blended learning is a combination of traditional teaching modes with online modes of teaching.

COVID-19 shaped an environment related to technology-based learning in higher education. This pandemic has posed several challenges for higher education [7]. COVID-19 pandemic (World Health Organization, n.d.) has created the urgent motion for the universities to go online. For online teaching, there should be pedagogical content knowledge which is essential for designing the course content and creating distinctive learning with the help of digital tools in this environment. However, at the same time, students would wish to interact physically with the teacher once the situation improves, looking into the viability of online learning in the long run. Therefore, the knowledge economy has started thriving on blended learning formats. There is competition among higher education institutions to provide the best quality education to the students [8].

Blended learning is widely being adopted across higher education and referred to as the “new traditional model” or “new normal in course delivery,” observed Graham [9]. The use of the blended model in teaching and learning can improve the quality of education, studied by Raman. Classroom interaction vital in quality of education is affected by power distance between the teacher and students, stated Kasuya. Much research has been done on blended learning. However, hardly any on the role of power distance in blended learning in higher education, specifically post COVID-19, looking into the fact that there would be the phenomenal rise of blended learning post-COVID-19. Keeping in mind the growing significance of blended learning shortly, it becomes strategically important to understand the role of power distance in blended learning formats post COVID-19. This research paper tries to address the research gap [10].

2    Literature review 2.1    Paradigm shift in education

In the latter half of the 20th century, two complimentary but significant developments occurred that impacted the instructional situation in international higher education. First was Open Education Management, which believed in openness in learning and focused on the learner-centered educational provision. Menon observed that the second was the emergence and integration of Information and Telecommunication technologies that contributed to significant changes in all aspects of education [11]. These two developments led to the shifting of education from teacher-centric to learner-centric, stated Menon.

2.2    Globalization and role of culture in higher education

2.3    Power distancing in countries

Talking about countries, Asian nations are more unequal societies as compared to Western nations. Hofstede stated in his study that Asian countries like Japan, South Korea, Thailand, and Hong Kong have large power distance societies. In contrast, Western countries like Great Britain, the USA, Canada, and Germany have small power distance societies, observed Kasuya [15]. These power distances are observed in the classroom teaching in these nations. In online classrooms, Chinese learners’ perceptions of power distancing affect their learning, particularly their interaction with the instructor, states Zhang.

2.4    Power distances in different forms of learning

While there is evidence of power distances differentiating countries by their cultures, people of different countries must respond differently to situations. The entire learning system gets impacted by power distances. Some scholars have suggested that Asians are collectivist societies accustomed to high power distances and lower autonomy. Supporting this view was Richard and Lockhart, “who contrasted the attitudes of Asian teachers with those of Western teachers,” suggesting that “in Asian cultures, and teaching is seen as a teacher-controlled process.” Hence, the learning pedagogy would be based more on higher power distance formats where the teacher would lecture. The students would listen without much debate [17].

2.5    The autonomy of the teacher and the taught in traditional and online learning

Power Distance tends to differ in different countries and different technologies for the learning process. However, depending on the power distance, there would be an innate relationship with autonomy in terms of how much autonomy will be granted based on the power distance of the teacher and the learner. Higher power distances tend to create an inequality of power, and thereby autonomy of people in lower power tends to accept inequality and lesser autonomy. In contrast, those in high power would tend to enjoy more autonomy. The debate regarding who has more autonomy, the teacher or the student, has been debat- ed for quite some time. The added debate suggests whether the autonomy applicable in online media is also applicable in offline media. According to Benson, “from the teachers’ perspective, autonomy is primarily concerned with institutional and classroom learning arrangements within established curricula [18]

Converging different schools of thought, Ganza concluded, “it is argued that developing a learner’s capacity to be autonomous is meaningful only in terms of inter-relational dynamics: i.e., that learner autonomy depends upon the capacity of the learner and the teacher to generate and maintain a particular inter-relational climate defined in terms of influence or restraint from influence ensuring both their learners’ autonomy and their own.” Thus, the online learning formats provide more autonomy to the students who may not use the autonomy judiciously. However, the teacher benefits from this autonomy and must ensure a learning ecosystem that will make students use different learning modes and platforms judiciously [19].

2.6    Rising significance of blended learning

3    Theoretical frameworks

Hofstede’s model is a systematic approach to understanding a society’s culture based on several cultural dimensions. These dimensions are Power Distance (PDI), Individualism (IDV), Masculinity (MAS), and Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) [21]. Two more dimensions were added after a few years. They were Long-term Orientation (LTO) and Indulgence. Power Distance (PDI) is defined as the degree to which less powerful members accept that power is distributed unequally. (Hofstede Insights). Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) is the way a society tolerates uncertainties. Masculinity depicts the difference of emotions among gender. Individualism/collectivism refers to the degree to which one respects the independence of individuals. Indulgence/restraint shows the extent to which individuals control their desires and impulses, stated Alshahrani [22].

4    Research methodologies

Secondary data research has been done by studying and analyzing different research papers related to power distance and blended learning. The study is exploratory, exploring the role of power distancing in blended learning formats during post-COVID-19. The data collection involved collecting research papers on COVID-19, Power Distance, and Blended Learning, looking into the exploratory nature of research. The method of analysis taken in this research is the literature review content analysis method [23]. A content analysis of the papers was done to understand the factors affecting power distancing and the role of power distancing in blended learning format post-COVID-19.

5    Analysis and conclusions 5.1    Power distance has an impact on the autonomy of an individual

There is a relationship between power distance and the autonomy of an individual. The higher the power distance between a teacher and a student from the teacher’s perspective, meaning the teacher is at more power than the student. It becomes teacher-centered learning. When the teacher imparts the power to the student, then it becomes student-centered learning. In student-centered learning, the power is transferred to the students. The teacher becomes a facilitator of the learning process. In such a case, although it is stu- dent-centered learning, the power as it would reside on the teacher in the teacher-centered learning would not be of the same intensity in the students during student-centered learning. The dilution of power occurs between the teacher and the student, thereby reducing the power distance between the teacher and the student, leading to lesser autonomy of both the teacher and the student. So, the lesser the power distance, the lesser is the autonomy of the teacher and the student [24].

• 5.2    Blended learning required for mitigating power distance

• 5.3    Mediated autonomy between the teacher and the taught

• 5.4    Power distance will differently influence blended learning based on country and technology used between the teacher and the learner

5.5    Power distance is affected by the culture of the countries 5.6    Power distance affects the pedagogy of learning 5.7    Power distance affects classroom interaction

Blended learning is a process where both online and offline technological media convergences should take place in an appropriate proportion so that the net result of blended learning positively creates an ecosystem whereby both the teacher and the taught get the best of both worlds. There are some great positives in offline teaching and some disadvantages. Similarly, for online media, there are some advantages and disadvantages. The blended model provides a perfect mixture of the best. The students and the teachers are benefitted, and the learning process is enhanced. In specific modes of offline and online, there are high power distances. Similarly, there are low power distances for both offline and online on the other side of the coin. A blended learning format is chosen so that the low power distances of both offline and online are put together, creating a flexible platform of communicational liberty for both the teacher and the student. The lesser the power distance, the more the interaction between the teacher and the student leads to a better ecosystem of learning. So, blended learning with the best of low power distances in terms of the media and delivery mechanism of offline and online ensures the mitigation of power between the teacher and the taught.

There always remains a power equation between the teacher and the taught. Though the teacher is the overall supervisor of the class to ensure a system of smooth learning environment, it is left to the teacher whether he/she wants to keep the autonomy within oneself or delegate it to the students and be a facilitator in the course of learning. However, the best learning environment happens when there is a fearless intellectual clash between the teacher and the taught. In such a scenario, the position of teacher in terms of his/ her role becomes more of a critical knowledge discusser than a preacher of specific thoughts with little room for discussion. The student may have a point of view that could potentially argue in a specific context. However, if there is a high power distance, there would be problems mitigating autonomy among the teacher and the student. The blended learning, if applied appropriately, would lead to lowering of power distance and thereby mitigating the autonomy between the teacher and the taught. The mitigation would lead to a closer connection between the teacher and the taught, thereby leading to a democratic discussion forum due to mediated autonomy. Therefore, this mediated autonomy would reduce the power distance leading the learning pedagogy more to a blended learning format.

As proposed in the above three points, the arguments, when inferred together, lead to the fact that power distance does play an important role in the process of learning. The power resides in multiple places: with the teacher, with the student, with the country, and with the technology. The higher one has the power, the higher is the autonomy, and the lower is the possibility of a blended learning format as far as countries are concerned. There are countries which are very high on power distance. Hence in these countries, no matter how much autonomy is mitigated between the teacher and the taught, there will be a higher proportion of power in the teacher’s hands and the technology that the teacher uses. Similarly, in countries with low power distance, there will be lower autonomy. Hence, blended learning will mitigate the autonomy of the learner and the teacher. The countries in mid-range power distance would have a propensity towards blended learning; however, the kind of technology used by these countries will become the defining factor in terms of how much power distance will be executed for learning purposes. The technology is also an important parameter to judge how much autonomy can be given to the students and how much autonomy will reside with the teacher. In designing the blended learning format, a teacher can consider the power distances in various modes and forms of delivery, thereby syncing the learning materials that would best suit what form of learning will occur. Thus, the teacher can define in his/her mind the level of autonomy that will be provided to students in specific topics and then design the blended learning format related to that topic. This process will ensure that learning takes place in optimal ways for specific topics. There are topics where, irrespective of the country and the technology, higher or lower power distances need to be maintained. In such a case, the course design would dictate the power distance and, thereby, the blended learning format appropriate for an effective learning environment. Thus, the power distance influences the blended learning format and may differently influence blended learning whether in respect to country or technology or both or bereft of both of them if the topic of the course so demands.

Globalization acted as a game-changer in higher education. With the growing global competitiveness, students are expected to be more informed, multilingual, technology-enabled, and compatible with people of different cultures. Culture affects the way a country responds to global competitiveness. Asian countries are collectivist societies, and it can be inferred that in a collectivist society, people are generally relying on a person of high status to provide wisdom and thereby maintaining a level of silence. Hence the culture of a country with higher power distances is majorly a reflection of a collectivist society, and this reflection gets embedded among the teachers and the students when they are a part of the knowledge sharing system.

In higher power distance formats, the pedagogy followed is a lecture mode of teaching inhibiting free interaction in the class. The students are bound to obey what the teachers teach. The lessons center around the teachers, and students are rarely proactive. However, in lower power distance classes, the students are very active, and both students and teachers contribute to learning.

Western education follows a lower power distance between the teacher and the student and stresses in-

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ductive approaches to learning. More collaborative activities are encouraged among students to enable them to respond to learning. Asian education stresses more deductive approaches to learning, and students are not made responsible for learning.

5.8    Technology can reduce power distance

The more collaborative learning a specific technology can support, the lesser the power distance. So, if the right type of technology promotes collaborative learning, power distances can be reduced. The appropriate use of the technology as a medium of delivery can influence power distances.

5.9    Power distance in heterogeneous groups

With the rapid globalization and mobility of students across the world, the group of students in a classroom is heterogeneous, comprising students from different countries with different cultures. Every student coming from a different culture has his perception of power distance. So, teachers need to be sensitive while exercising power distancing in the class. Blended learning suits well here, allowing teachers to exercise varying degrees of power distance with the heterogeneous group of students in synchronous and asynchronous learning modes.

5.10    Degree of autonomy in power distance between teachers and students

The higher the power distance between the student and the teacher, the higher the inequality of power and autonomy towards students with lower power the degree of autonomy can vary depending upon the perception of both teachers and students towards autonomy in power distance. This perception is again based on the socio-cultural background of both students and teachers and the inter-relational dynamics defined in terms of influence or restraint from influence.

6    Proposed conceptual model

Based on the analysis and conclusions drawn Figure 1, the following conceptual model has been derived.

7    Limitations of research

This research is based on secondary data analysis. Findings are based on research papers collected and analyzed due to pandemics’ paucity of time and resources and a ban on respondent interaction.

Fig. 1. Conceptual model

8    Future scope of research

The model proposed in this paper will be tested in the next paper through primary data collection and statistical models to test the applicability of the model.

Statement on ethical issues

Research involving people and/or animals is in full compliance with current national and international ethical standards.

Conflict of interest

None declared.

Author contributions

The authors read the ICMJE criteria for authorship and approved the final manuscript.