The International Dimension of Norwegian Arctic Policy and the Accumulated Capital of Russian-Norwegian Cooperation

The strategic importance of the Arctic region in the development of Norway is due to a combination of historical, economic and geographical factors [1, Dzyuban V.V., p. 6]. About half of the country’s territory is located to the north of the Polar Circle, and, therefore, since the 12th-13th centuries, the inhabitants of these territories were primarily engaged in fishing and hunting in the Arctic [2, Perdikaris S., p. 395]. Currently, in addition to fisheries, mineral resources are of great importance for the Norwegian economy [3, Noreng Ø., p. 396], such as oil and gas reserves in the Arctic, mainly on the continental shelf. In 2020, Norway adopted a new Arctic strategy, updating its policy priorities in the region.

The Arctic region is playing an increasingly important role in the international arena due to the preserved energy potential and the growing importance of the problem of global climate change, which entails the melting of ice and the subsequent increase in climate risks for Norway with its large Arctic area [4, Martinson D.G., Pitman W.C., p. 254; 5, Makarov I.A., Sokolova A., Stepanov I.A., p. 451]. Due to the emergence of common problems and challenges for the Arctic states in the region, the countries have intensified cooperation both in bilateral and multilateral formats [6, Ellingsen I.H. et al., p. 160]. Norway is interested in exchanging experience and knowledge, as well as conducting joint research with other countries in the Arctic region for a better understanding of the climatic and environmental situation there.

The importance of the Arctic region for Norway is reflected in the works of foreign researchers who consider not only historical and economic aspects [2, Perdikaris S.; 3, Noreng Ø.], but also ecological and climatic ones, paying particular attention to the multilateral cooperation of countries in the Arctic [4; 6; 5]. The main trends and directions of cooperation between Russia and Norway, such as environmental protection, fisheries, energy, etc., have received wide attention in the works of Russian and foreign authors [1, Dzyuban V.V.; 7, Alexandrov O.B., Kirgizov-Barskiy A.V.; 8, Jensen L.C.; 9, Krivorotov A.K.].

By now, the capital of the Russian-Norwegian cooperation in the Arctic is considerable: the long-term experience of cooperation between countries in the region made it possible to establish various institutions, such as bilateral working commissions, as well as to implement projects in a wide range of fields and sectors. The countries are stimulated by their common land and long maritime border, which opens up many areas for bilateral cooperation: fisheries, environmental protection, energy, etc. Over the past decades, Russia and Norway have launched a large number of bilateral projects in different directions; a solid creation of an international Secretariat of the Council regulatory and legal framework for cooperation was built, contributing to the implementation of the mutual interests of the two countries [7, Alexandrov O.B., Kirgizov-Barskiy A.V., p. 86]. The current political crisis has had a sharply negative impact on the development of Russian-Norwegian cooperation in the Arctic, and all the accumulated capital of cooperation between the two countries in the coming years risks remaining unclaimed.

The purpose of this article is to systematize the experience of Norway’s participation in various projects, both under the auspices of international organizations in the region (the Arctic Council, the Barents Euro-Arctic Council, the Nordic Council of Ministers, etc.), and in a bilateral format. The article is divided into three parts. The first part looks at Norway’s new Arctic strategy and its main priorities. The second part presents an analysis of Norway’s multilateral and bilateral

POLITICAL PROCESSES AND INSTITUTIONS

Ilya A. Stepanov, Elizaveta V. Smolovik, Anna A. Kazakovtseva. The International Dimension… cooperation with other Arctic states in the region. The third part describes the main areas of Russian-Norwegian cooperation in the region, as well as an assessment of the prospects for their development.

Arctic policy of Norway

For a long time, the Arctic has been an area of major strategic national interest for Norway [8, Jensen L.C., p. 2]. Norway’s special area of national interest is the Barents Sea, which is one of the largest maritime zones on the Norwegian continental shelf with huge potential for oil and gas production, as well as bioresources.

Norway’s Arctic policy focuses on the development of the Northern Norway region, and its priority is international cooperation in the Arctic, which includes relations with neighboring countries in the Barents Sea region and Northern Norway, including Russia. The main objectives of Norway’s state policy in the Arctic are 1:

• •    peace, stability and predictability;

• •    international cooperation and international legal order;

• •    integrated ecosystem management;

• •    increasing the number of jobs and creating added value;

• •    closer cooperation between the business sector and think tanks;

• •    effective social assistance programs and initiatives to make Northern Norway an attractive place to live.

In 2020, Norway adopted a new Arctic strategy that emphasizes the importance of bilateral, regional and multilateral cooperation with neighboring countries and its partners in the Arctic. Many of the provisions of the Strategy can be correlated with the UN Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs). The main priorities identified in Strategy 2020 are: 1) an integrated approach to climate and environmental change in the Arctic, 2) social development in the Arctic region, 3) value added and competency development, 4) development of infrastructure, transport and communications. Norway’s previous Arctic Strategy of 2017 2 focused on similar areas, but while environmental protection and climate change were previously an integral part of other areas, the current strategy emphasizes them as a separate priority.

The new strategy focuses on the first area, environmental protection, as the rapid warming of the Arctic threatens both some Arctic flora and fauna and entire ecosystems that depend on ice and snow, as well as posing serious risks to local communities and the way of life of indigenous peoples. As before, combating climate change remains one of Norway’s top priorities. The country is a member of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, has ratified the Paris Agree-

Ilya A. Stepanov, Elizaveta V. Smolovik, Anna A. Kazakovtseva. The International Dimension… ment, and therefore continues to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in accordance with national goals and international obligations. In the current strategy, Norway emphasizes its contribution to the achievement of the Arctic Council’s goal of reducing black carbon emissions ³ (a target of 25% black carbon reduction by 2025 compared to 2013 levels), and its actions to monitor climate change processes, including ocean acidification. In addition, with regard to environmental protection, the 2020 Strategy also indicates the goal set back in 2017 to deepen research on the Arctic ecosystem.

As before, in line with the 2020 Strategy, Norway continues to strive to develop the knowledge base needed for ecosystem-based management of the natural environment in Northern Norway and for climate change adaptation in the maritime industries and dependent on ocean sectors of society. In addition, Norway wants to create decent living conditions that would be attractive to the population of the country, especially young people. It is also planned to develop a strategy for small towns and urban centers and support regional cooperation between the business sector, districts and municipalities, as well as universities and colleges to promote the development of flexible learning programs — a goal set by the Norwegian government in 2017.

For the first time, reindeer husbandry was given a special place in the 2020 Strategy. This is an important livelihood within the region, and it is necessary for Norway to provide favorable conditions for this type of economic activity. Thus, Norway takes into account the need to develop all sectors of the country’s economy and provides them with support. At the same time, the state has been striving for years to establish communications and connections between various economic agents, which include state, municipal, and even private actors.

Saami, their way of life, etc. — an integral part of the Norwegian identity and culture, and it is therefore planned that the Norwegian government will participate in consultations with the Saami Parliament of Norway to compare existing experience in the field of the Saami language and culture and to develop knowledge in this area. Norway recognizes the need for regulatory and legal changes in the framework of the policy aimed at supporting the Saami, including adjustments to the legislative framework governing this area. The 2017 Strategy also reflected these goals in one form or another, indicating the historical continuity of Norwegian policy to support the indigenous people of the North.

In the 2020 Strategy, Norway pays special attention to the sustainable development of the region, including the promotion of environmental innovation, entrepreneurship and start-ups in Northern Norway. Norway is also committed to:

• •    sustainable development of the maritime industry and ensuring its “blue growth” (Norway aims to improve resource control in the context of sustainable management of fish stocks);

• •    sustainable development of the energy industry (Norway, as an energy-abundant country, intends to increase oil and gas production, as well as develop offshore wind power, for example, off the coast of Helgeland in Nordland province);

• •    strengthening economic cooperation in national and international policies (Norway plans to encourage cooperation between individual institutions and even sectors in the field of recruitment and development of talents in Northern Norway, to promote closer cooperation between employers, the business sector and institutions of higher education to meet society's needs for skills and knowledge, and to take steps to involve Norwegian economic operators in the Copernicus programme ⁴ to improve the modeling of climate processes in the Arctic);

• •    sustainable and profitable mining (one of the objectives, for example, is to promote exploration and deep sea mining).

The 2017 Strategy set goals only to strengthen cooperation between the business sector and other actors, while the maritime industry, energy and mineral resource development were not considered as priority areas at that time 5. However, they were still mentioned in the 2017 Arctic Strategy, which indicates their increased importance for the country by 2020.

For the development of infrastructure, transport and communications in 2020, the task was to conceptually assess the future transport solutions of the region (for example, the proposed new railway section from Feuske to Tromsø). Norway intends to continue to allocate significant financial resources to the development of the road network in its northern part: in 2017, the Norwegian government allocated NOK 40 billion to invest in transport projects in the northern parts of Norway 6. In addition, the Norwegian strategy for 2020 includes a number of measures in the field of infrastructure, transport and communications, which are also aimed at combating climate change. It is planned to continue testing and phased introduction of aircraft with low and zero greenhouse gas emissions, as well as the development of projects to improve navigation conditions, including the development of port infrastructure.

Separately, in both strategies, Norway emphasizes the importance of responding to environmental disasters, in particular through the implementation of agreements on preparedness and response to acute pollution in the Arctic, as well as the development of the Norwegian Marine

Litter Center (Senter mot marin forsøpling, formerly the Norwegian Centre for Oil Spill Prevention and Marine Environment Protection). Since 2017, the goal of strengthening cooperation with Russia for joint oil spill response operations has been maintained in the Arctic strategy7.

Despite the continuity of most of the provisions of the new Arctic strategy, some of the goals and directions were prioritised in 2020 for the first time, such as environmental protection, sustainable energy, marine industry, reindeer herding and others. This indicates that for 3 years, the value of these areas for Norway has increased greatly. Also, according to the text of the new strategy, there was an increase in the importance of China as a partner for Norway in the Arctic region, cooperation with which was emphasized in a separate block in 2020. Norway began to consider new opportunities for interaction in the region, more clearly formulating goals for sustainable development and focusing primarily on it.

Mechanisms and formats of international cooperation in Norway in the field of sustainable development of the Arctic region.

Multilateral formats

The leading platforms for advancing the Arctic agenda for Norway are the Arctic Council (AC) and the Arctic Economic Council (AEC), the Barents Euro-Arctic Council (BEAC), as well as the Nordic Council of Ministers.

Norway is a member of the Arctic Council, has chaired it only once, from 2007 to 2009, and will replace Russia in this capacity in 2023 8. During Norway’s AC chairmanship, resource management in fisheries, maritime transport, oil production and mining were a priority. Other issues on the agenda were pollution and climate change, climate change monitoring and assessment, biodiversity conservation and socio-economic development 9.

Currently, most of the projects in which Norway is involved in the Arctic Council now take place within the Working Group on the Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME). Examples include a project on recovery and recycling of marine litter and microplastics 10, 11, a project to assess the damage of low sulfur fuels to Arctic ecosystems 12, a project to protect biodiversity in Arctic waters 13, and projects in the field of shipping 14.

In addition, Norway is involved in projects to develop a sustainable blue economy 15, waste management 16, 17 and assess the impact of climate change on Arctic ecosystems 18.

Norway hosts the Arctic Council Secretariat in Tromsø, which since 2016 includes the Secretariat of Indigenous Peoples. In the Arctic Council, Norway pays special attention to combating climate change, developing sustainable transport and energy, as well as supporting the indigenous peoples of the North 19.

Norway attaches great importance to the Barents Euro-Arctic Council, where the country chaired from 2019 to 2021. Norway is the initiator of its creation and further institutionalization, including the establishing of an international Secretariat of the Council in Kirkenes and the Barents Institute — the think tank of the Council. Climate change has become a key focus of Norway’s agenda during its chairmanship, which led to an updated Climate Change Action Plan for cooperation in the region in 2021 as part of the Nordic Council of Ministers 20. Furthermore, maintaining stability and peace in the Arctic region is a key task for Norway in its foreign policy. In this regard, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Norway, Anniken Huitfeldt, notes that in the conditions of international tension, dialogue and synergy of the agendas of the Arctic Council, the Council of the Barents Euro-Arctic Region, the Nordic Council and the Council of the Baltic Sea States are required 21.

Although Norway is not a member of the European Union, it is active in international projects that are supervised and funded by the EU. The most successful track is cross-border cooperation programs (CBC). Since 2014, Norway, along with Sweden, Finland, Iceland, Ireland and Denmark (Greenland and the Faroe Islands), has been implementing the “Interreg Northern Periphery and Arctic” project 22, in which the regions of Tren-delag, Nur-Norge and Svalbard are involved from Norway. Russia does not take part in the project, but is its observer 23. The purpose of this project is to strengthen cooperation between the regions of the Euro-Arctic zone in the socioeconomic sphere, as well as in the field of environmental protection.

Norway is also a member of the Nordic Council of Ministers, where the portfolio of projects in the field of achieving the UN SDGs is expanding every year. Within the framework of the Council of Ministers of the Nordic countries, with the support of Nordforsk 24 and Nordregio 25, projects are being implemented to develop human capital, healthcare, environmental protection and adaptation to climate change (including projects to maintain biodiversity, waste management), develop the bioeconomy, as well as building infrastructure in the Arctic 26.

Norway also actively participates in the work of the Arctic Coast Guard Forum, which brings together the states of the Arctic Council for search and rescue in the Arctic and joint local emergency response 27. Norway also pays great attention to the fight against crime in the fishing industry, for which satellite monitoring technologies is being developed in order to carefully monitor the situation in the regions of Northern Norway, which is difficult without modern technologies 28.

Bilateral formats

Norway implements deep bilateral cooperation in the Arctic with Sweden and Finland. Norway’s projects with Finland focus on the oil and gas industry, and a wind farm in Finland, which will supply Norwegian oil and gas production 29, has also been completed by 2022 30. The cooperation of these countries is also aimed at building links between business and educational institutions 31, for example, through international business forums in the Arctic (Arctic Business Corridor 32). Norway and Sweden cooperate in the area of renewable energy 33, i.e. the countries have developed a joint electronic certificate system for renewable energy 34. The priority areas of cooper- ation between Norway, Finland and Sweden are transport and logistics, digital services and labor market integration 35. Indigenous issues and their representation in international forums such as the Arctic Council and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council are also of great importance in Norwegian, Swedish and Finnish relations. Furthermore, in 2018, the three countries signed a Trilateral Statement of Intent to deepen and improve defense cooperation 36. Norway’s cooperation with the United States in the Arctic touches on maritime issues, including oil spill response 37, and scientific dialogue between American and Norwegian research centers. Norway and Iceland are also developing a scientific dialogue between universities and research centers 38, 39.

Norway also promotes Arctic cooperation with China, especially in research. For example, the first Chinese polar station Huanghe was opened on Svalbard in 2004 40. Norway conducts joint scientific research in the Arctic with India: in 2007, the first Indian scientific expedition was launched in Norway, and in 2008, the Himadri research station was opened in Svalbard 41.

Russian-Norwegian cooperation in the field of sustainable development of the Arctic region. Bilateral Russian-Norwegian cooperation in the Arctic

The legal framework for cooperation between Russia and Norway is enshrined in numerous bilateral treaties and documents, which were previously constantly updated and amended. One of the main documents that resolved most of the existing territorial claims between countries was the Treaty on the delimitation of maritime spaces and cooperation in the Barents Sea, signed in 2010 42. The established areas of cooperation were security in maritime and air space, environmental protection, fishing, energy, environmental protection, joint operations to prevent and eliminate the consequences of oil spills and other environmental disasters and socio-cultural interaction [9, Krivorotov A.K., p. 268]. However, due to the aggravation of relations between Russia and Western countries in February 2022, cooperation within the framework of the vast majority of projects and initiatives was suspended.

URL:

URL:

Environmental protection

An important area of cooperation between Russia and Norway was environmental protection. The basis for Russian-Norwegian cooperation was the Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Norway on cooperation in the field of environmental protection of September 3, 1992 43. Under this Agreement, a Joint Norwegian-Russian Commission on Environmental Protection was established. Both at the level of the Joint Commission and at the level of working groups, meetings of officials were held regularly, which reflected the aspirations of both states to deepen cooperation in the field of environmental protection and sustainable development.

In 2019, at the 20th meeting of the Joint Commission, the Working Program of Russian-Norwegian cooperation in the field of environmental protection for 2019–2021 was approved. This was the result of a positive experience of cooperation and successful implementation of projects in the Barents Sea region in the field of environmental protection in 2016–2018 44.

The Joint Commission included several working groups that aim to cooperate in the following areas: protection of the marine environment, biodiversity, reduction and control of environmental pollution, radioactive contamination, as well as in specific areas, such as cross-border cooperation and protection of natural and cultural heritage. In 2022, there was no cooperation between states within the framework of the Joint Commission and working groups.

Environmental pollution control

An active dialogue on cooperation between Norway and Russia on reducing environmental pollution began in 2018. The problem is relevant for both countries, because due to the common maritime border, garbage is transported with currents and winds between states, negatively affecting the marine and coastal environment in both Russia and Norway, as well as certain sectors of the economy and human health. At a bilateral meeting of the Minister of Natural Resources and Ecology of the Russian Federation Dmitriy Kobylkin and the Minister of Climate and Environmental Protection of Norway Ola Elvestuen on February 26, 2018, the parties identified the main issues 45

that require mutual attention. These included combating marine debris pollution, reducing pollution in border regions and the problem of offshore disposal of waste from coastal industries.

The basis for cooperation in this area was the exchange of experience on this problem and the measures already taken to solve it. One of the first steps was the Russian-Norwegian seminar on combating pollution of the Barents Sea with marine debris and microplastics, which took place in November 2018 46. Thanks to this initiative, experts from both countries were able to share their knowledge and identify prospects for cooperation on this issue for sustainable development.

Several projects between Russia and Norway in the framework of the fight against pollution have been enshrined in the Work Program for cooperation between countries: waste management in Murmansk; introduction of the best available technologies (BAT) at the enterprises of the northern regions, taking into account the Norwegian experience; reduction of pollution in the Barents Sea 47. In order to work on these projects, the parties have carried out joint activities. For example, a regular meeting of experts from both countries on marine litter and microplastics in the Barents Sea took place in 2020. The event marked the beginning of the preparation of a joint report on the pollution of the Barents Sea with marine debris and microplastics, which will provide a systematic basis of knowledge and recommendations on this issue 48. There have also been local activities that aim to exchange data in this area, such as on methodologies for assessing the impact of pollution on the environment 49.

In addition, specific campaigns and projects aimed at cleaning up the coastline were carried out. In May 2021, the results of the Norwegian-Russian projects MALINOR (Mapping marine litter in the Norwegian and Russian Arctic Seas), DIMARC (Detecting, identifying and mapping plastic in the Arctic using robotics and digital solutions) and ArcToMal (Arctic tourism in the Barents Sea — awareness and participation for marine litter prevention) 50. All three projects were spon-

Ibid.

Ilya A. Stepanov, Elizaveta V. Smolovik, Anna A. Kazakovtseva. The International Dimension… sored by Norway under the leadership of Akvaplan-niva ⁵¹ and aimed at reducing the pollution of the Barents Sea coastlines from garbage: the first two projects were devoted to mapping marine debris using innovative solutions, and the last one was to attract tourists and tour operators in the Arctic to scientific research marine debris ⁵².

Marine environmental management

As Russia and Norway share a border in the Barents Sea, both countries have equal and mutual responsibility to protect the marine ecosystem and to preserve all plant and animal species found in the region. This cooperation started in 1994 with the signing of the Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Norway on cooperation in combating oil pollution in the Barents Sea 53.

Until 2022, the main cooperation between the countries took place within the framework of the Russian-Norwegian Working Group on the Marine Environment. In 2019, at the 16th meeting, the main vectors of cooperation in this direction established by the Work Program were fixed. In particular, cooperation in the field of the marine environment was aimed at developing an integrated ecosystem approach to management (ecosystem-based management) of the Barents Sea 54. On the Norwegian side, a plan for such management in the region of the Barents Sea and the Lofoten Islands has already been developed. It is based on ensuring a balance between environmental protection and commercial activities in the region (fishing, shipping, oil production) 55. Russia has set the key task of developing a similar integrated management plan for the Russian part of the Barents Sea based on the Norwegian experience, as well as developing a pilot project for integrated environmental management in the Arctic seas and its implementation in the Russian part of the Barents Sea.

In addition, one of the projects of the Work Program within the framework of marine environment management is the operation of the Barentsportal 56, which contains environmental data on the Barents Sea. This website is a joint project between Norway and Russia and aims to ex-

Ibid.

Ilya A. Stepanov, Elizaveta V. Smolovik, Anna A. Kazakovtseva. The International Dimension… change information related to the integrated environmental management of the Barents Sea and sustainable development in the region. As part of this, Norway and Russia are prioritizing exchange of information, experience and expertise on various sustainable development issues ⁵⁷. However, at the moment, further updating of the web portal is suspended.

Biodiversity conservation

Another focus of cooperation between Norway and the Russian Federation in the field of nature conservation is biodiversity conservation. Cooperation took place within the framework of the Russian-Norwegian working group on cooperation in the field of biodiversity; its meetings were held annually.

As a result of interaction within the framework of the Work Program of Russian-Norwegian cooperation in the field of environmental protection for 2016-2018, Norway and Russia have made significant progress in implementing several projects focused on the joint collection of data on the state of populations, their study and the preparation of recommendations for eliminating possible risks for them. These include the projects “Seabird population in the Barents Sea region”, “Vulnerable and endangered bird species in the Barents Sea region”, “Populations of marine mammals in the Barents Sea region”. At the meeting of the Working Group in 2019, the parties noted the success in cooperation within the framework of all three projects 58, and these projects were extended as part of the work program of Russian-Norwegian cooperation in the field of environmental protection 2019–2021 59.

In addition, the scientific centers of both states not only jointly studied ecosystems and biodiversity, but also carried out specific activities to protect and study the environment. One example of such interaction was the joint work of the Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (Nibio) and the Karelian Research Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences 60. These research centers have been cooperating for many years, the main area of common interest was the study of brown bears in the Svanhovd region. The interaction regarding research in the border areas was especially intensive.

Thus, Norway sought to strengthen cooperation with Russia and expand the joint initiative on transboundary research in the field of biodiversity conservation.

Joint operations to prevent and eliminate the consequences of oil spills and other environmental disasters

The legal framework for cooperation between countries on oil spill response and the elimination of the consequences of other environmental disasters is based on three documents: Memorandum on strengthening Norwegian-Russian cooperation in the field of maritime safety in the Barents Sea 2006, the Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Norway on cooperation in combating oil pollution in the Barents Sea, 1994, as well as the Joint Contingency Plan in the event of oil pollution in the Barents Sea, which was signed simultaneously with the Agreement 61.

For 20 years, with some exceptions (as in 2020 due to COVID-19), Norway and Russia have been conducting joint maritime search and rescue and oil spill response exercises in the Barents Sea 62. It is important to note that the countries have repeatedly cooperated in carrying out operations to prevent and eliminate the consequences of oil spills. For the Norwegian side, cooperation in this area was seen as the basis for sustainable development in the Arctic, which ensures security in the Barents Sea 63.

Fisheries

In the framework of cooperation in the field of sustainable development, the fisheries sector deserves special attention. Norway and Russia have a long maritime border, which was demarcated in 2010. The states signed an agreement “On the delimitation of maritime spaces and cooperation in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean”, which was ratified by the Russian side in 2011. According to this document, the disputed territory with an area of 175 thousand km2 was equally divided between the countries as a result of a compromise reached. The treaty strengthened bilateral relations between the countries, which moved to a new level, since almost all territorial claims between Norway and Russia were resolved and there were no longer any barriers to cooperation. The Norwegian side proposed the idea of creating in the future the so-called “Pomor zone”, which would become the Norwegian-Russian industrial and economic cooperation zone in the border area of both countries.

Ibid.

In the last quarter of the 20th century, the Joint Norwegian-Russian Fisheries Commission was created, within the framework of which the countries successfully interacted. Their cooperation ensured a sustainable fishery in the region as the countries made joint decisions on: the level of total allowable catch (TAC), TAC distribution between Russia and Norway, technical measures regarding fishing gear; they also introduced systems to ensure that the fishing industry complied with all regulations 64.

Every year, the countries agreed on the TAC, paying attention to the state of stocks of each of the species 65. Since 2018, the commercial capelin fishery has stopped due to the low level of spawning stock 66, which was resumed in 2022 67. This became possible as a result of the exchange of knowledge and research between Norwegian and Russian scientists, on the basis of which they concluded that there is a sufficient stock of capelin for continuation of its commercial trade.

Energy. Oil and gas

Cooperation in the field of oil and gas production was of particular interest to Russia and Norway. To intensify cooperation in this area, a Working Group on Oil and Gas, a Working Group on Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Sources and an Expert Group were established as part of a bilateral dialogue on the use of oil and gas resources and the environment 68.

As part of the energy dialogue between the countries, an Agreement on the exchange of seismic data in the Barents Sea was signed in 2016, and in 2018 — an Intergovernmental Agreement on the procedure for collecting seismic data up to and along the demarcation line on the continental shelf in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean 69.

One of the longest examples of cooperation between Norway and Russia in the field of oil and gas is the cooperation of the Norwegian oil and gas state concern Equinor (Statoil until 2018) with PJSC Rosneft. Initially, Equinor State Concern has been involved in the development of the Kharyaginskoye oil field since 1996. In 2012, strategic cooperation with PJSC Rosneft Oil Company began. The cooperation of the two companies included many projects that were implemented not

Ibid.

Ilya A. Stepanov, Elizaveta V. Smolovik, Anna A. Kazakovtseva. The International Dimension… only in the Arctic region ⁷⁰. Equinor, under the Production Sharing Agreement, owned 30% of the Kharyaginskoye oil field, which made the company the second largest investor in the project ⁷¹. In addition, the Russian company Novatek planned to supply LNG to the Norwegian Equinor ⁷². However, due to the current crisis, cooperation between the two companies ceased due to the departure of Equinor from Russia ⁷³.

Russian companies have participated in tenders for licenses to develop the Norwegian shelf, which are organized by the Norwegian government for both national and international companies. In 2015, for example, Lukoil Overseas North Shelf AS applied for participation in the 23rd round of license distribution, which resulted in the approval to develop a certain block 74.

In addition, the cooperation of the Norwegian oil and gas state concern Equinor with PJSC OC Rosneft was also aimed at combating climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions, which led to the signing of an Agreement between them on cooperation in the field of greenhouse gas emissions management in 2021 75. The partners agreed not only to reduce methane and CO2 emissions as part of their joint oil and gas projects in Russia, but also to consider alternative energy sources, such as wind turbines, and to try to introduce carbon capture and storage technologies 76.

Nuclear power

For decades, cooperation in the field of nuclear energy and nuclear safety was carried out within the framework of the bilateral commission on nuclear and radiation safety, which operated for 25 years. In June 2021, the 24th meeting of the commission was held, which was focused on cooperation in preparedness, environmental monitoring and safety in Russian nuclear power plants 77. In addition, it is important to note that cooperation between the Norwegian Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority and the state nuclear energy corporation Rosatom has deepened over the past two years. In 2019, Norway provided financial support for the extraction and trans-

Ilya A. Stepanov, Elizaveta V. Smolovik, Anna A. Kazakovtseva. The International Dimension… portation of spent nuclear fuel from Andreev Bay ⁷⁸. Norway has invested in safety upgrading programs at Kola NPP in Murmansk Region ⁷⁹, in particular, supporting the Russian Federation in decommissioning old reactors at Kola NPP ⁸⁰, an important step towards sustainable development. However, since Norway joined the anti-Russian sanctions, Russia has suspended its cooperation in the field of nuclear energy and nuclear safety ⁸¹.

Sociocultural cooperation

The sociocultural interaction between Norway and Russia was based on the Agreement on cooperation in the field of culture, education and scientific research of 1994, the Action Plan for cooperation in the field of culture in the Far North of 2009 and the Program of cooperation in the field of culture for the period 2019– 2021 The last document was adopted in 2019 and included nine projects with a total funding of NOK 2.9 million (about 20.5 million rubles). Five of these projects were dedicated to the performing arts, including the Samovar Theater in Kirkenes and the Norwegian-Russian Theater RuNo in Tromsø, while the other four were aimed at promoting and preserving the culture of indigenous peoples, mainly the Saami. There is no current information about upcoming performances and other events within these projects.

In addition, within the framework of the Work Program of Russian-Norwegian cooperation in the field of environmental protection for 2019-2021, two projects were implemented between the countries: Conservation, preparation of cultural monuments on the Kola Peninsula and the Nordland Railway project: Conditions in captivity and forced labor performed by Soviet prisoners of war during the Second World War. As part of the second project, the Norwegian side erected a new monument to Russian prisoners near the former POW camp, and Russian scientists developed the map “Blood Road: a map of facilities built by Soviet prisoners of war along the Nordland railway in 1943–1945” 82.

Cooperation in the cultural sphere also took the form of various events that were held on a reciprocal basis. In 2019, for example, there was an exhibition of works from the State Tretyakov

Gallery’s collection at the Munch Museum in Oslo, followed by an exhibition of works by E. Munch at the Tretyakov Gallery in the same year.

Many of these events were held as part of cross-border cooperation. In 2018, for the first time in the city of Kirkenes, the Murmansk Arctic State University (MASU) organized the Day of the Russian Language and Culture, the purpose of which was to promote the Russian language and literature 83. Another event that has been held for several years is the Russian-Norwegian Forum. In 2021, the program of the forum was dedicated to the dialogue of cultures: “Russia and Norway at the crossroads of eras and cultures”, and a scientific and practical conference, open lectures, film screenings, creative meetings were held in Murmansk with video broadcast in social media 84.

Another initiative in the framework of cross-border cooperation between Norway and Russia is the development of the Pasvik-Inari program. The Pasvik-Inari Park is located on the territories of Norway, Russia and Finland. As part of bilateral cooperation, Norway and Russia not only assessed the state and jointly monitored water and terrestrial ecosystems in the park, but also developed tourist routes. In 2021, a new tour route was opened near the waterfall on the Shuonijoki River, available to the citizens of Norway and Russia 85.

Citizens of the Russian Federation could also cross the Norwegian border without a visa or stamps in their passport. This opportunity was available to Russians who lived in the municipalities of Nikel, Pechenga, Zapolyarniy or Korzunovo for three years: if this condition is met, you can get a border resident certificate that allows you to travel to Norway an unlimited number of times, but for a limited term (no more than 15 days per trip) 86. In the summer of 2022, the Norwegian Consulate General in Murmansk was temporarily closed, which led to the suspension of the issuance of residence permits in the border area 87.

In addition, Russia and Norway sought to develop inter-university cooperation. This interaction took place, in particular, within the framework of the Russian-Norwegian working group on cooperation in the field of education. At the beginning of 2022, about 140 cooperation agreements were in force between Russian and Norwegian universities and more than 40 joint scientific

Ilya A. Stepanov, Elizaveta V. Smolovik, Anna A. Kazakovtseva. The International Dimension… projects were carried out ⁸⁸. One example of cooperation in the field of higher education is the Russian-Norwegian master’s program “International oil and gas business” in management field in MGIMO ⁸⁹. As of July 2022, there was no statement about the termination of inter-university cooperation between the countries.

Cooperation between Russia and Norway in multilateral formats

Until now, the Arctic Council has been the main platform for cooperation between Russia and Norway in the field of sustainable development of the Arctic region, since it unites all the Arctic and subarctic states and creates a basis for fruitful joint work. The work in the Arctic Council was carried out within the framework of several working groups, most of the projects involving Russia and Norway were implemented within the framework of the Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG). For example, Russia and Norway, together with Canada, the Athabaskan Arctic Council, the Aleut International Association and the Saami Union, worked on the project “Indigenous youth, food knowledge and Arctic change (EALLU) 90 in 2019-2023, the purpose of which is to develop sustainable reindeer husbandry in the Arctic region, as well as to share knowledge about the food culture among indigenous peoples and reindeer herders.

In addition, in 2021, the SDWG launched the Arctic community representatives on COVID-19 and public health: a multi-site case study 91, which was devoted to assessing the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the population of the Arctic, on the level of healthcare in the region 92.

The SDWG has been implementing the Arctic demography index project 93, which was launched in 2020. Russia, Norway and Canada acted as project coordinators. The main goal of the project was to develop a methodology for calculating the demographic index based on three parameters: natural increase and decrease in the population and migration flows. Within the framework of the project, it was planned to calculate the demographic index in 19 Arctic regions, including 9 regions in Russia, 2 in Norway, 3 in Finland, 2 in Sweden and 3 in Canada.

From 2021 to 2023, under the leadership of Russia and Norway and within the framework of the SDWG, it was planned to implement the Preserving Arctic Architectural Heritage project 94, the purpose of which is to create a digital database of cultural heritage objects in the Arctic, using 3D-modelling technology for online tours.

Since 2020, Russia, with support of the SDWG, has begun to create an international autonomous Arctic station “Snezhinka” 95. It is a research center for experimentation, monitoring, technology development and implementation, primarily in the field of climate change 96. Norway, as a member of the Arctic Council, expressed interest in this project.

Since 2015, Russia and Norway, within the framework of the working group on the implementation of the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program (AMAP), have been coordinating a project to assess radiation activity in the Arctic 97 in the context of global climate change and accelerated economic development of the Arctic. Within the framework of the project, the tasks were set to identify the sources of radiation activity and what effect climate change has on the level of radioactivity. However, at present, the Arctic Council and all its working groups have temporarily suspended work, and the Arctic states have refused to cooperate with Russia on common projects 98.

Norway takes part in cross-border cooperation programs (CBC) with the European Union. Norway participated in the Kolarctic CBC together with Russia. The phase from 2014 to 2020 was successfully completed, and the project was extended to a new phase from 2021 to 2027. On the part of Russia, the Murmansk and Arkhangelsk oblasts, as well as the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, were involved in the project, on the part of Norway — the county of Nurlan and Troms-og-Finnmark.

Among the sustainable development projects in the Arctic involving Russia and Norway within the framework of the Kolarctic CBC, the project Cross-border innovations in Arctic aquaculture can be singled out 99, which was launched in 2019 and was supposed to be completed by the end of 2022. The main objective of the project was to promote sustainable aquaculture development in the Arctic region by identifying and studying the factors that limit the introduction of fish species such as Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus), catfish (Anarhichas minor), whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus) and nelma

POLITICAL PROCESSES AND INSTITUTIONS

Ilya A. Stepanov, Elizaveta V. Smolovik, Anna A. Kazakovtseva. The International Dimension… (Stenodus leucichthys nelma), the breeding of which is more profitable and suitable for Arctic conditions ¹⁰⁰.

In addition, the Arctic Railway Infrastructure in Kolarctic (ARINKA) project (2014-2021) was implemented under the Kolarctic program 101, the main objectives of which included sharing of advanced solutions and knowledge in railway construction to increase railway network capacity in the Kolarctic program region, as well as developing recommendations for monitoring the railway network. In the field of transport, a trilateral project (Russia, Norway and Finland) “Barents on schedule” was implemented, which resulted in the development of a platform 102 with information on cross-border public transport and on the main tourist routes. It is important that within the framework of the Kolarctic CBC, the border checkpoint Borisoglebsk, located on the Russian-Norwegian border, was reconstructed 103. However, Russia’s participation in the CBC is currently suspended 104.

Russia and Norway cooperated through the Barents Euro-Arctic Council, which Norway chaired from 2019 to 2021. At the 18th ministerial session of the Barents Euro-Arctic Council, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov stressed the importance of maintaining a political dialogue with the Nordic countries on developing the Arctic region, including through summit meetings 105. However, cooperation with Russia within the framework of this platform was also put on hold 106.

In addition, Russia, together with Norway, Iceland and the EU, created the Northern Dimension partnership 107, which facilitated Nordic cooperation in areas such as the environment, health, transport, logistics and culture.

Russia was a member of the Nordic Council of Ministers, of which Norway is also a member. The Nordic Council of Ministers has seven working areas, including higher education and research, health and climate protection. Within the framework of the Council, the interaction between Russia and Norway took place mainly on climate issues, for example, from 2019 to 2020, the countries participated in a project called Strengthening Nordic-Russian network in promotion of climate change mitigation for local development, the main goal of which was to develop NCO on climate change issues 108.

Ibid.

In March 2022, cooperation with Russia within the framework of the Nordic Council of Ministers and within the framework of the Northern Dimension partnership was suspended 109.

Conclusion

The Arctic strategy of Norway in 2020 and the country’s participation in a large number of projects in the Arctic demonstrate the geopolitical and geo-economic importance of the region for the state. First of all, Norway pays special attention to the values and goals of the international community, which it includes in its Arctic agenda. At the same time, the state forms the Arctic policy, based on the characteristics of the social, economic, environmental and climatic conditions of its northern region, striving to ensure national interests through international cooperation.

The multilateral cooperation projects, in which Norway has participated, especially since 2020, are consistent with the goals and objectives specified in the new Arctic strategy of the state. This conclusion was made on the basis of Norway’s participation in the projects of the Arctic Council, the Nordic Council of Ministers and the Kolarctic CBC, as well as the state’s chairmanship of the Barents/Euro-Arctic Council, under which, for example, measures were taken in line with the objectives of the Norwegian Strategy for the Protection environment, namely addressing climate change.

In general, the priority of environmental protection over other areas of Arctic policy in Norway has been noted. This is confirmed by the active participation of the state in the projects of the working group on the protection of the Arctic marine environment of the Arctic Council, as well as the abundance of multilateral and bilateral measures already implemented in this area. In particular, this can be seen in cooperation with Russia, where Norway has not only carried out joint projects on pollution control, biodiversity conservation and marine environmental management, but has also strengthened the institutional framework accompanying this cooperation. The existence of an extended Working Program for Russian-Norwegian environmental cooperation in 2019-2021 and working groups in this area demonstrates the integrated and responsible approach of both Norway and Russia to protecting the region’s environment.

The experience of cooperation with Russia in recent years demonstrates its qualitative and quantitative results in the form of projects already fully or partially implemented, as well as new agreements and the creation of additional institutions of interaction. One noteworthy example of this is Norway’s willingness to support Russia in its own Arctic projects, which are not directly linked to a common land and sea border or multilateral cooperation formats, such as Norwegian support for nuclear power in Russia, namely the safety of the Kola nuclear power plant. Over the past three years, Norway has demonstrated its willingness to share its own experience and knowledge with Russia, as well as to contribute to the development and introduction of new measures and policies that are already being implemented in Norway, including ecosystem management of the environment.

Thus, Norway and Russia accumulated a huge potential for cooperation in various fields: from the economy to culture. At the same time, the implementation of many projects, due to their peculiarities, depends on the continuity of the process of cooperation between the two countries. Despite the difficult geopolitical situation after 2014, as well as Norway’s membership in NATO, the Norwegian side has repeatedly stressed the importance and necessity of dialogue and cooperation with Russia in the Arctic to ensure the integrated development of this unique region. This was confirmed by the persistence of cooperation projects even in the energy sector, which is closely linked to the national interests of states and which is strongly influenced by political tensions in the international arena.

However, due to the events of February 2022, Norway suspended cooperation with Russia in multilateral and bilateral formats. At the beginning of the summer of 2022, the Norwegian government did not announce the possibility of resuming existing projects and organizing new ones. The aggravation of relations between Russia and Western countries has a critical impact on the state of cooperation between the Arctic states in the region. Most joint projects between Norway and Russia have been suspended, new meetings within the framework of bilateral working groups are not held, and part of the interaction has been completely stopped, as, for example, in the energy sector due to the departure of the Norwegian Equinor from Russia. There is no information in the public domain about the current status of cooperation in some projects, but it can be assumed that the lack of data indicates a suspension of bilateral cooperation. In the multilateral formats of cooperation between Norway and Russia, a similar trend can be traced, as Norway has put on pause all joint projects with Russia and, in general, interaction with it within the framework of the Arctic Council, the Council of the Barents Euro-Arctic Region, the Nordic Council of Ministers, the Northern Dimension partnership and all CBC, in particular, Kolarctic CBC.

The implementation of the accumulated capital of the Norwegian-Russian cooperation in the Arctic largely depends on the possibility of overcoming the foreign policy crisis in the coming years. Otherwise, the rich experience of interaction in the region in various fields will be lost, as well as opportunities for future cooperation. In addition, a break in relations can have a critical impact on the state of the Arctic ecosystems, which are extremely vulnerable to global climate change and local pollution, requiring collective action by all countries in the region [10, Makarov I.A., Stepanov I.A., p. 136].

However, the experience of scientific cooperation between Norway and the USSR during the acute geopolitical crisis during the years of the Cold War testifies to the reality of overcoming difficulties and tensions in bilateral relations in order to continue cooperation in the Arctic. In 1958, meetings of Soviet and Norwegian oceanologists were held, and in 1965, three years after the Caribbean crisis, the first joint expedition of the countries was carried out in the Barents Sea to study fish stocks, which testifies to the understanding by states of the importance of developing cooperation to protect the environment and implementation of sustainable economic activity in the Arctic 110. The signing by the

USSR, Norway, Denmark, Canada and the USA of the Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (1973) also indicates the priority of international cooperation in the field of environmental protection in the Arctic. The past experience of overcoming crisis situations and the rich history of relations between the two countries should form the basis for the resumption of dialogue, the preservation and enhancement of the accumulated capital of Russian-Norwegian cooperation in the Arctic.