Political processes and institutions. Рубрика в журнале - Arctic and North
Arctic Corporations and Development Risks: Challenge and Response
Статья научная
The realities of the Russian Arctic in recent decades make it possible to determine a special phenomenon of corporate development risks, which can be structured into resource, institutional and ecosystem risks. The resource risk reflects the contradiction between the conjuncture of the global resource markets and the specific conditions for the development of unique deposits located in the Arctic zone; institutional risk — between federal norms and rules for the development of natural resource deposits and local specific conditions for the construction and operation of resource facilities in the Arctic; ecosystem risk reflects the contradiction between large-scale economic activity and the fragility of Arctic natural systems. As a result of a comparative assessment of the development risks of three Arctic corporations in Russia, it was found that the highest risk is typical for the facilities of Norilsk Nickel, the lowest — for NovaTEK, and Gazpromneft is in the middle. Using the OLI paradigm of John Dunning, it can be argued that Arctic corporations respond to the challenge of development risks by adapting their spatial, institutional and organizational structure to the conditions for the development of resources and resource territories. The spatial factor is most efficiently used by Norilsk Nickel, then NovaTEK, in the strategy of adaptation to development risks, with the receipt of benefits from localization and the creation of a regional cluster, while Gazpromneft is the least effective. The institutional factor is most effectively used by NovaTEK and Gazpromneft, and the least by Norilsk Nickel. The organizational and structural factor as a tool for adapting to risks is most skillfully used by Gazpromneft, weaker — by NovaTEK and Norilsk Nickel. Integrally, the best positions in the strategy of adaptation to development risks are held by Gazpromneft, and the worst positions by Norilsk Nickel, which has the most significant contrast between the size of development risks and the means of adaptation to them. Strengthening the internal competencies of the company and its corporate innovation system is the most important way to successfully cope with the high risks of corporate development of resources and spaces of the Arctic.
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Arctic council: outcome of the first year of the icelandic presidency
Статья научная
In the article based on the report of the Chairman of the Committee of Senior Officials in the Arctic Council, Einar Gunnarsson «Together on the road to a sustainable Arctic: one year in 2019-2021 of the presidency of Iceland», the first year of Iceland’s Arctic Council presidency is reviewed by the Senior Officials Committee. Key priorities for action are identified, which are protecting the Arctic marine environment, combating ocean acidification; sustainable development of the fisheries sector; reducing ocean pollution; combating marine debris; combating climate change and introducing green energy; ensuring the sustainable development of the indigenous community of the Arctic; continuing to strengthen and enhance the role of the Arctic Council in maintaining peace, international cooperation and political stability in the Arctic region. Also, the impact of the coronavirus pandemic on the Icelandic presidency and the development of Arctic cooperation are being considered. Of interest is the analysis of measures taken to counter the pandemic among the small indigenous communities of the North, Siberia and the Russian Far East. Iceland’s plans for the second year of its chairmanship of the Arctic Council are indicated. The author also discusses Russian-Icelandic cooperation at the current stage in the economic field and in the sphere of interregional relations. It is noted that our countries share a common memory of the joint struggle against fascism, and Russia remembers with gratitude Iceland’s contribution to the formation and support of polar convoys.
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Arctic frontier: Ice Silk Road and its role in China's advance to the Arctic
Статья научная
In recent circumstances of world climate change, Arctic zone has become of great interest for those countries actively involved in its development. With the constant climate warming, deglaciation and increasing of sea-level, commercial transport ways through the Arctic Ocean become a possible economic solution for large exporting countries. Due to importance of north passage for China, Beijing proclaimed itself as a "near-circle State" to get advantages from the development of Northern Sea Route (NSR) that can provide direct access to the Arctic zone and its natural resources. Considering this, China has recently published its White Paper on Arctic Policy, where it announces "Ice Silk Road" to be the official Arctic strategy of China. This article underlines the major intentions and interests of China in its Arctic strategy. One of China's intentions is an enhancement of the Northern Sea Route, that still raises concerns from the specialists whether it can be applicable part of Arctic strategy of China. This article approves that according to Ice Silk Road's connotation Russia should play an indispensable role in China's advancement to the Arctic zone through NSR. Moreover, the author investigates the influence of "Ice Silk Road" on Sino-Russian relations. Both China and Russia appear to prioritize this strategy to ameliorate economic situation and infrastructure in less-developed regions of two countries. Though, economic development of Arctic coastal cities is one of the priorities of the Russian Federation, it remains to be attentive to the involvement of China in the development of the region, mainly out of fear that it will influence its legal position in the Arctic region. Meanwhile, it stays important that two governments come to a consensus concerning the legislative basis of NSR usage and have a deep assessment of advantages and disadvantages that come out as a result of their partnership.
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Consistency and Adaptability: New Aspects of the Arctic Policy of Sweden
Статья научная
The article is an analytical review of Sweden’s Arctic policy since the adoption of the country’s first Arctic strategy in 2011 until nowadays. The priorities of Sweden’s 2011 Arctic Strategy in the areas of environmental protection, economic cooperation and human life in the Arctic are analyzed. Sweden’s chairmanship programs at the Arctic Council for 2011–2013 and at the Barents Euro-Arctic Council for 2017–2019 are assessed for compliance with the national Arctic strategy priorities. The participation of Sweden in projects under the auspices of the Arctic Council in the 2010s and at present is presented. The content of the updated Sweden’s Arctic strategy of 2020 is analyzed. The updated strategy is compared with the strategy of 2011; the reasons for the enlargement of the thematic coverage of Sweden’s Arctic strategy of 2020 (additional priorities are international cooperation in the Arctic, security and stability in the region, and scientific cooperation) are explained. The reasons for Sweden’s emphasis on security issues in the Arctic are explained. It is concluded that Sweden’s Arctic policy from 2011 to the present is consistent and adaptable due to the changing climatic, economic, political and military situation in the Arctic region. The desire of Sweden to cooperate with the Nordic countries and NATO in the field of military cooperation in the Arctic is marked as a new tendency in Sweden’s Arctic policy. The new role of the European Union, Canada and Germany in the implementation of Swedish Arctic policy at the present stage is traced. Sweden’s Arctic strategy is also estimated in correspondence to the provisions of the Arctic Council Strategic Plan for 2021–2030.
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Cooperation between Russia and China in Arctic shipping: current state and prospects
Статья научная
The article analyzes the cooperation between China and Russia in the field of Arctic shipping. The author compares the tasks of the Northern Sea Route development and the Ice Silk Road construction. This allows identifying the factors that promote and hinder cooperation. The author examines the specifics of the Sino-Russian format of comprehensive partnership and strategic interaction that helps to mitigate contradictions between the national interests of the two states. The author examines the current cooperation between Russia and China in the field of Arctic shipping, identifying strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in key areas of interaction (SWOT analysis). The author concludes that differences between interests and status of the two states in the Arctic provides Russia a strategic advantage in its relations with the PRC. This balance may be maintained within the framework of a multilateral cooperation. At the same time, cooperation with China in the field of marine security is promising in case of keeping existing power balance. In conclusion, the author suggests areas for cooperation to increase the effectiveness of bilateral interaction in the field of Arctic shipping.
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Статья научная
Mechanisms for coordinating the activities of international interstate and macro-regional organizations of the North-Arctic regions, the implementation of which may be directly related to the program of the Russian Federation’s Presidency of the International Arctic Council in 2021-2023, are proposed. Among these organizations, primarily the Arctic Council is an international forum, which operates on the basis of interstate government agreements of the highest level between the Arctic countries. But in recent years, the Arctic territories’ activities at the macro-regional and regional levels, their regional and local governments have increased. How are the efforts of these top-level intergovernmental and regional communities and societies coordinated? For example, how is the interaction of the Arctic Council with the established sufficiently effective Barents / Euro-Arctic Council (BEAC) or the Northern Forum regulated and the newly created Bering / Pacific-Arctic Council (BPAC)? Do we need clear and well-coordinated mechanisms for this interaction and who should do it? The analysis concludes that a special task force is needed within the Arctic Council structure to develop mechanisms for coordinating its activities with similar macro-regional structures to make the process a coherent and focused one to address the priorities of the Arctic basin in the coming decades. The duration of this task force will depend on the outcome of the task at hand. This proposal is very timely, as it is possible to implement it during the presidency of the Russian Federation in the Arctic Council in 2021-2023.
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Статья научная
The article provides a systematic analysis of the critical economic and legal factors affecting the current state of cargo flow in the Northern Sea Route in the convergence of the Asian and European markets. First of all, these are legal norms, environmental standards, economic efficiency and organizational and managerial motives, and the development of transport and port infrastructure along the route of the “historically developed national unified transport communication of Russia in the Arctic”. The authors propose specific steps and recommendations to overcome obstacles that create an unfavorable barrier environment for logistics companies to strengthen cooperation and interaction on an equal and mutually beneficial basis with Russia and counterparty partners in the market. These include irregular deliveries due to the seasonal functioning of the transport route and ice conditions, a high level of tariffs due to low cargo flow, and the inability to transport return goods. Particular attention is paid to the need for international cooperation to implement large infrastructure projects for the development of the NSR and the industrial and economic development of the Arctic territories. The authors propose specific steps and recommendations to overcome obstacles that create an unfavorable barrier environment for logistics, stevedoring and insurance companies, infrastructure operators, ship-owners and regulatory authorities to enhance cooperation and interaction on Russia’s equal and mutually beneficial basis and counterparty partners in the international market.
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European Union and Cooperation in the Arctic Council
Статья научная
Since 2008, the European Union has unsuccessfully tried to obtain permanent observer status in the Arctic Council, the central cooperation forum in the Arctic. The analysis shows that the EU's failures in this area are connected both with its location mostly outside of the region and remoteness from the northern realities, as well as global geopolitical tensions. However, the EU has had de facto observer ad hoc status since 2013, allowing it to participate in almost all formats of interaction in the Arctic Council. Considering this fact, the permanent observer status has rather a symbolic meaning and is equivalent to joining a kind of “privileged Arctic club”. An analysis of the EU's functioning in its relations with the Arctic Council and its members shows that the EU is ready to adapt and listen to the opinion of the Arctic countries in order to become a legitimate Arctic actor. The Arctic Council is of uneven importance for the different EU member states: Denmark, Finland and Sweden are full members, several countries are permanent observers, but most EU countries are not interested in the Arctic issues. Because of this multifaceted nature, the collective EU is more of an extra-regional player on the platform, but one with serious Arctic claims. The EU is actively working on a common Arctic policy. It is represented in the Arctic Council by the Ambassador-at-Large for Arctic Affairs, introduced in 2017, who acts in coordination with the European Commission and the member states concerned. The EU's overall approach is not unsuccessful: it has managed to engage more member states on the Arctic vector, and European expertise and input on sustainable development issues is already becoming an integral part of the AC's work and promises to evolve further.
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Статья научная
Based on an extensive database, the authors analyzed the main features of the EU Arctic strategy and their relationship with Russian interests in the region. The authors proceed from the fact that the probability of reaching any significant points of contact between the two actors is minimal. The incompatibility of their strategic lines is because the EU considers the Arctic as another platform for its potential of “normative strength”, while Russia, in cooperation with its foreign partners, is primarily aimed at attracting investments in the development of the Arctic infrastructure. In the context of the ongoing crisis in bilateral relations caused by the events in Ukraine, it is not possible to talk about the prospects for harmonizing the regional aspirations of the EU and the Russian Federation.
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Future work of the International Seabed Authority in the context of the Arctic governance
Статья научная
The article studies the history, legal framework of the International Seabed Authority, its functions, structure and current work. The analysis focuses on potential fields of ISA activity in the Arctic. Despite the ongoing expert discussions, the author is of the view that Part XI of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention, setting out the legal basis for the governance of the Area resources and the work of ISA, applies to the Arctic Ocean like to any other part of the world ocean. The primary function of ISA is to regulate exploration and exploitation of deep seabed non-living resources beyond national jurisdiction. Apart from that, ISA will be engaged in other issues — implementation of the UNCLOS provisions on the payments by the coastal states concerning the exploitation of non-living resources on the outer continental shelf, coordination of marine scientific research in the Area, dissemination of its results, etc. Moreover, in the future, ISA could play a significant role in the integrated cross-border and cross-sectoral ecosystem governance of the Arctic Ocean.
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Geopolitical risks of hydrocarbon development in the Russian Arctic
Статья научная
The article is devoted to the issues of geopolitical risks (GPR) in the hydrocarbon development of the Russian Arctic. The authors pay special attention to the analysis of modern geopolitical and geostrategic challenges of the Arctic region development. The article identifies the key geopolitical factors that affect the sustainable development of the Arctic and analyzes the similarities and differences in the geostrategic positions of the Arctic Five. One of the most important factors of the XXI century that determines the alignment and interaction of various geopolitical forces is the struggle for resources. In this regard, an increase in GPR in the Arctic, related to its resource potential, is inevitable. For oil and gas industry facilities, GPR can be transformed into opposite environmental factors in the form of additional opportunities or threats, which the authors identify in detail for each type of risk. The authors focus on such positions of the GPR, which are related to ensuring access and obtaining control rights over the Arctic's hydrocarbon resources from different countries, the uncertainty of the legal status of the Arctic region, and the use of geoecological risks (GER) as manipulative priorities of attention to Russia's actions in the Arctic.
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Статья научная
As the world was becoming more interdependent, with increased global awareness of the northernmost parts of the world, both the Norwegian and Russian governments showed more political commitment to and interest in new forms of region-building and development in the High North from 2006 and onwards. Today, more than ten years later, many regional changes are evident in the Norwegian-Russian border zone, as a consequence of expanded people-to-people contacts in the Barents Euro-Arctic Region (BEAR). In this peripheral border area between two national states, villages and cities have become more open, both sociologically and legally for increased cross border cooperation (CBC) and networking. In this article I will take stock of some of these borderland openings following on from the consequence of the two nations’ rising levels of interest in the High North. It explores the ways in which (inter-)national policy-making and state-substate interactions ultimately altered centre-periphery dynamics. This article has based its approach to understanding the interplay of domestic and foreign policy instruments on the ‘substate diplomacy’ literature, which argues that increased state-substate interactions constitute an efficient in-strument for extending cooperation beyond national state borders. The efficiency of regionally driven sub-state interactions is discussed from an empirical perspective. The present study analyses various High North development contexts and discourses (effective from 2008) in the Arctic borderland between Norway and Russia. The new political commitments presented in state-level official documents (the branding of the High North) envisioned a transference of new industrial-economic high tech scenarios from state to local level. These scenarios included new borderland visa regimes, co-existing with cross-border forums invest-ments in improvements of roads, infrastructure, and transport rationalisations. The present article briefly assesses these policy rationales and their outcomes, revealing the region’s contemporary geopolitical and economical potential, as well as local and regional realities. The findings show that substate governments and stakeholders are able to operate in demanding trans-border contexts, contribute to ongoing contem-porary CBC discussions, and complement national and state-level efforts by using their regional expertise to solve problems.
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Human Security in the Arctic: Threats through the Prism of the "Northern Mentality"
Статья научная
The article is devoted to the analysis of threats to human security in the Russian Arctic, taking into account the peculiarities of the “northern mentality”. The authors note that the concept of “human security” is relatively new for the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation (AZRF), as until recently security in the northern regions of Russia was defined mainly from the state-centric positions. The universalist approach is hardly applicable in practical policy: it is impossible to build a policy of “human security in general” and transfer it to the conditions of the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation. The concept of human security and corresponding policies must be adapted to the specific conditions of the Russian Arctic. Today, however, the AZRF faces a set of new threats to human security that require a response. The authors examine several groups of threats to human security that are relevant to the AZRF, the reasons for their emergence and the extent to which they affect the further development of the region. In conclusion, the authors conclude that the transition of the AZRF to sustainable development is only possible if the threats to human security discussed in the article are neutralised. The key directions of human security policy, which is based on the principle of enhancing the viability and self-development of the peoples permanently living in the Arctic, are highlighted.
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Статья научная
March 5, 2020, President of Russia V.V. Putin approved the Basic Principles of Russian Fedration State Policy in the Arctic to 2035. It is a strategic planning document aimed at ensuring the national security of the Russian Federation and designed to protect Russia's interests in the Arctic. It defines goals, directions, tasks, as well as mechanisms for implementing Russian policy in the Arctic for the next 15 years. The authors analyzed the implementation results of the Basic Principles of Russia's State Policy in the Arctic until 2020 and further perspectives. The article provides a general outline of the Basic Principles of Russian Fedration State Policy in the Arctic to 2035. The authors focus on the analysis of the leading national security challenges in the Arctic and enhancing integrated security of the fuel and energy complex, as well as the main directions of the implementation of the state policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic. They are the protection of the population and territories of the Arctic zone from natural and human-made emergencies, enhancing national security in the Arctic zone, ensuring the military security of the Russian Federation, and protection of the state border of the Russian Federation. It is emphasized that the comprehensive implementation of the Basic Principles will contribute to improving the quality of life of people in the Arctic zone, socio-economic development of the country, and increasing its defense capability in the Arctic.
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Is the arctic on the brink of a hybrid war?
Статья научная
The article examines the phenomenon of hybrid war in relation to Arctic politics. The goal of the study is to show how valid this concept is, who Western experts consider the main source of hybrid threats, and what they consider hybrid threats in the Arctic. The empirical grounds of the study are documents of international organizations and publications of Western authors. A critical analysis of documents and publications shows the concept of hybrid war was introduced into scientific circulation by the military, but it is also used in a broader meaning. Military experts have not yet come up with a clear definition of hybrid war. Representatives of political science use the concept of hybrid war in an even more amorphous meaning, which leads to its unlimited expansion. Based on specific examples, it is shown that any manifestations of Russian politics potentially fall under the concept of hybrid threats, which is conducive to the creation of political mythology that covers up the political goals of Western opponents. There is no consensus in Western publications regarding the productivity of the concepts of hybrid threats and hybrid wars, but a more common radical point of view, which limits down to the imposition of confrontational relations in the Arctic and in international politics in general.
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Main Theoretical Approaches in the Arctic Policy Studies
Статья научная
The article identifies and analyzes the main theoretical approaches used in the studies of international relations and politics in the Arctic. Contemporary studies of the Arctic use elements of several main approaches in the field of international relations: realism, liberalism, social constructivism and global governance, as well as some others. The theoretical alternative between realism and liberalism manifests itself primary in the issues of Arctic security. Liberalism and the concept of global governance play an important role in explaining the multilevel and multi-actor nature of political processes and governance in the region. Social constructivism contributes to the understanding and functioning of Arctic political narratives. However, in most cases, they exist in the form of implicit assumptions rather than as systematically developed and substantiated models. The theoretical differences are mainly related to the definition of units and levels of analysis, particularly the role of states and other types of actors, and the nature of the relationship between them. Despite the fact that realistic approaches considering Arctic politics as inevitable competition of states in the logic of “zero-sum games” remain quite common, the general tendency is to search for more complex theoretical models that recognize the diversity of actors involved in Arctic processes, as well as the possibility of cooperative relations.
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Military-Political Situation in the Arctic: Hotspots of Tension and Ways of De-Escalation
Статья научная
The article describes the politico-military situation in the Arctic, including the development of military capabilities of states in the region, the coastal infrastructure, the scales and the manner of military exercises, as well as the dynamics of the military landscape in the Arctic. The authors argue that the military capabilities in most parts of the Arctic remain moderate, primarily due to harsh climate restraints. However, military activity both of NATO member-states and Russia has increased considerably recently in the Euro-Arctic area adjacent to the North Atlantic, in particular in the waters of the Barents and the Norwegian seas. Mutual military deterrence in this area represents a "new old" normal that will shape the security situation in the Arctic in the long term. The article concludes by considering possible options for preventing escalation and minimizing the concerns of the sides by restoring a full, regular and institutionalized military dialogue between Russia and the rest of the Arctic states.
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National projects in the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation
Статья научная
In 2021, the Russian Federation will assume the chairmanship of the Arctic Council. This fact confirms the special attention of the country’s leadership to the unique geostrategic region. In December 2020, President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin, at an online meeting with volunteers and finalists of the contest “Volunteer of Russia”, noted that Russia would grow with the Arctic and the territories of the North. Many Russian citizens’ lives and the state’s success in the international arena depend on this territory’s development. One of the most important mechanisms for achieving the stated goals is national projects (NP), which should make a significant contribution to the development of the country’s territory. The purpose of the study is to assess NP in the subjects that are entirely related to the Arctic zone: Murmansk region, Nenets Autonomous okrug (NAO), Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous okrug (YANAO), and Chukotka Autonomous okrug (CHAO). In the course of the work, general scientific research methods were applied: comparative analysis, data comparison, induction, deduction, etc. The study results showed that, despite all the differences in economic and geographical position, financial condition, population, and regional development priorities, all Arctic regions have similar problems that hinder the effective development of territories. Without solving the problems indicated in the work, it is impossible to expect a qualitative «breakthrough» and implement the NP’s goals.
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New risks and opportunities for interstate cooperation in the Arctic
Статья научная
Despite the growing tension in Russia-West relations, the Arctic region continues to remain a zone of peace and cooperation. The level of interstate collaboration here is extremely high, unlike other maritime regions. The interaction is developing in scientific research, protection of the marine environment and biodiversity, regulation of fisheries, improvement of search and rescue efforts, control of oil spills, and regulation of navigation. However, interstate competition has not disappeared in the Arctic. The countries participating in the maritime activities in the region often have completely different priorities and are firmly defending their national interests. Under sanctions’ pressure, the Russian Federation is forced to seek new partners and allies in the Arctic. This choice is extremely difficult since the coincidence of positions on one issue or another is often minimal. In order to defend its interests, Russia needs to achieve such a format of interaction with the Arctic and non-Arctic countries which would be extremely mutually beneficial and work for the good of our country, but not to its detriment.
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Organizational mechanisms for implementing Russia's Arctic strategy in the 21st century
Статья научная
The Arctic in the 21st century remains a popular topic in the natural-scientific, economic, socio-humanitarian and political spheres. The relevance of studying the Arctic is determined by the fact that in recent decades, deep and irreversible transformations have taken place in this region, and a full understanding of the causes and consequences of which for the economy and environmental management has not yet developed. As a result of climate change and globalization, there is a growing interest in the Arctic macro-region on the part of many foreign countries that developed strategies and programs for the development of national Arctic zones at the beginning of the XXI century. Against the background of global competition for resources and transport communications, it seems relevant to analyze the features of the development of Russia's state policy for managing the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation in the XXI century. The article analyzes the mechanisms of implementation of Russian state policy in the Arctic based on the strategic planning system and reveals the bottlenecks in the system of state management of the Arctic region. It is concluded that the core of Russia's policy in the Arctic is innovative modernization that can ensure sustainable socio-economic development, infrastructure development, rational use of natural resources, protection of local ecosystems and development of indigenous communities.
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