The Ukhta Expedition of the OGPU: the Start of Industrial Exploration of Mineral Resourсes of the Pechora Region

21st of August 1929 – day of arrival to the river Ukhta of expedition of the OGPU is rightly considered to be the starting milestone in the practice of large--‐scale practical reclamation of natu--‐ ral resources of a vast Pechora region. Many works of scientists and regional ethnographers [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8] were devoted to the history of expedition (1929--‐1931), its activity and results of scientific--‐investigation and industrial works, which later led to creation of oil--‐and--‐gas, coal, radium and helium industrial fields and also to appearing of new inhabited localities and traffic lines in Komi ASSR.

The direction of the OGPU expedition in the region of Ukhta in 1929 is usually connected with following reasons: 1) Pechora region was rich in different natural resources which had to be included in industrial development; 2) beginning of industrialization in the USSR gave the birth to exploitation in Komi ASSR; 3) with foundation of Komi Autonomous area in the year 1921 it a question was risen of economic base of this autonomous area and its industrialization; 4) accord--‐ ing to the decree of VTsIK of 14th January 1929 a Northern region was founded which was consist--‐ ed of Arkhangelskaya, Vologodskaya, Severo--‐Dvinskaya provinces and Komi Autonomous Area – a great territory which demanded the exploitation of its natural resources; 5) creation and devel--‐ opment of Gulag system influenced the industrial development of the Pechora region.

From the current point of view when results of activity and expedition, and founded on this base Ukhta--‐Pechora trust, are well--‐known, these reasons are considered to be rather convincing. But these reasons are not so evident to be the basis for sending the expedition to the Ukhta river

in 1929, by analyzing circumstances from the point of view of those days, which preceded sending of expedition.

Coal problem in Pechora region

Beginning from the year 1921 teams of the Northern science--‐trading expedition, founded by the decision of Supreme Council of National Economy (SCNE), undertook the task--‐oriented search of high quality coals in Pechora region. Results of this work let A.A.Chernov in the year 1924 to formulate a conclusion of presence of great Pechora coal basin [9, 10].

Leading economic bodies of the Soviet Union very seriously take A.A.Chernov’s scientific foresight. It was an important conclu--‐ sion, because according to the data of SCNE Central Geological--‐ Exploration Control in the beginning of 1930s the common demand in coal by the European North of Russia constituted 43--‐45 mln. puds, 1 mln. of which was taken from Donbas, and other was bought in England and in Spitsbergen [11].

But in research circles the foresight of A.A.Chernov met fa--‐ mous and rather explicable distrust. A scientist himself remembered: “…do you think it was easy to prove that these Pecho--‐

Pic . 1. Alexander Alaksandrovich ra coals have great importance? No. I remember the first meeting           ^{Chernov, 1929}

when everyone smiled that there were Perm coals in the Urals.

There are no. There is salt, gypsum and so on. At my suit a special meeting of coalers was called, moreover, one very honorable specialist directly announced: “what we had to do, some Perm coals, which has no perspective” [12, c.260].

By that, A.A.Chernov himself saw just limited use of founded in 1920s coals on the territory of Pechora region. “When there were no coals of higher quality, than those, known nowadays…, their use was posed in rather limited frames (emphasis added). Coal can develop both mining and other (timber) regional industries. A well--‐known part of coal can probably withstand the short transportation; moreover, some minefields (in river Kos’ basin) are situated on river routes... All in all more wide use of coal can be foreseen by carrying on the periphery of railway road of one or another direction… Absolutely other, we can say, unusually rich perspectives are posed for use of Pechora coals in the way, when among them there will be founded highly caking coals poor in scrape (emphasis added). Then we will have a wide basis for development of metallurgy industry on the Northern Urals, and a great import will appear to the Middle Urals and probably to the whole north of Europe” [13, p. 10].

Just discovery of coals on the river Vorkuta in the year 1930 by G.A.Chernov, who worked on the strength of N.N.Iordansky party, let A.A.Chernov to summarize his great longstanding prospect--‐ ing work, that analysis of these coals gave an overriding result on both their quality and homogenei--‐ ty. Discovery of Vorkuta coals changed attitude of scientists and state government to Pechora coal basin cardinally. “Keen breakdown was felt under foot from 1930 when Vorkuta region with its coals of high quality were founded. Since those times, properly, we didn’t have to defend the importance of a basin” [14, pp. 51--‐52]. At once after finding of coking coals on the river Vorkuta and run of A--‐ tests, a number of meetings by SCNE vice--‐chairman V.I.Mezhlauk with participation of A.A.Chernov according to problems of industrial exploitation of Pechora basin coals were held in heavy security [15].

On the 20th of April 1931 SCNE adopted a regulation “Of development of fuel base in North--‐ ern region”, which suggested to found one bargh in the area of the river Vorkuta and two--‐three in the area of the river Adsva, to produce in these areas 7 thousand tones of coal. Moreover, in the ar--‐ ea of the river Nezh it was supposed to stake exploratory surface mines and to produce here 2 thou--‐ sand tones of coal. Exploitation and producing works here were entrusted to the OGPU Ukhta expe--‐ dition. On the 24th of April 1931 a bureau of AUCP(b) Northern regional committee adopted a pre--‐ script “of field reconnaissance and industrial exploitation forcing of Pechora coals and oil”. On the 9th of May by the decree of OGPU Ukhta expedition chief a coal commission was founded, which adopted on its meeting a plan of exploitation of 9 thousand tones of coal in the year 1931 and de--‐ veloped activities of transference in the areas of rivers Adzva, Nezh and Vorkuta of needful working and propelling forces and materials of construction. A bureau of AUCP(b) Komi regional committee and Komi regional executive board presidium in May--‐June 1931 adopted corresponding prescript on actualization of directives of central government. On the 6th of August 1931 on the right bank of the river Vorkuta the first coal driftway was founded. In 1931 by the OGPU Ukhta expedition it was re--‐ covered 9,884 tones of coal, which was 108,9% of the planned task [10].

In such a way, by August 1929 a problem of highly qualified coals exploitation in Pechora region was still not solved and couldn’t be the reason for expansion of large--‐scale industrial works.

An Ukhta oil problem

First reliable information of oil presence on the river Ukhta date back to the end of XVIIth century. Attempts of F.S.Pryadunov, A.I.Nagavikov, M.S.Bazhenov, M.K.Sidorov, A.M.Galin, A.G.Hansberg, Ju.A.Voronov, A.I.Abakovski and other businessmen are famous for organizing of systematic exploitation of oil in the Ukhta region, but they didn’t succeed to create a viable enter--‐ prise [1].

An interest in Pechora region by the Soviet government was initiated from the first days of its creation. Country experienced fuel hunger. According to V.I.Lenin order a Special meeting on fuel on the 29th of November 1918 addressed to a Geological committee (Geolcom) for infor--‐ mation of opportunity of industrial exploitation of the Ukhta oil fields. In the answer of the com--‐ mittee form the 19th of March 1918 it was said following: “As a result of all the efforts of clarifica--‐ tion of the Ukhta oil region industrial significance it is possible to suggest that the region’s state, in which conditions it is now, distant from populous centers and lack in communication with it, an exploitation hasn’t any industrial significance” [1, p. 48].

In April 1918 a geological expedition in the Ukhta oil region was organized, which was headed by the chief of Geolcom oil section K.P.Kalizky. An expedition included a geologist A.A.Soyanov and mining engineer A.D.Volkovich. In summer the expedition explored the Ukhta and Sed’ rivers, their tributaries and head of the river Vichegda. In December 1918 on the meeting of Geolcom it was listened an account of K.P.Kalitzky who gave his negative opinion about the op--‐ portunity of exploitation of the Ukhta field [1].

A fuel hunger which occupied Petrograd became the reason for sending to the Ukhta one more expedition in 1918. It was organized by the management council of Putilovsk fabric. The ex--‐ pedition included: mining engineer A.I.Semryagin, a mine captain A.F.Vaipolin, and a member of a manufacturing committee M.V.Burtzev. The expedition reached the Varvarjinsk field on the river Ukhata, took samples of oil and came back, making sure in impossibility of immediate oil extrac--‐ tion from the Ukhta field [16].

In February 1919 a geological survey department presented a project of carrying out of en--‐ vistigation work in the Ukhta region. The expedition was headed by chief administrator of a Glavneft geological survey department a mining engineer A.I.Kovigin and a geologist of Geolcom A.A.stoyanov. In 1919 the expedition of two units left Petrograd and Moscow, but they couldn’t reach Ukhta – the region was occupied by the whites. conducting reconnaissance of oil shales on the river Vim’, it came back [1].

Pic. 2. Participants of expedition to the river Ukhta in 1919

In 1920--‐1930s the interest of USSR governmental structures to the Pechora region was connected with search of coal but not oil on its territory [1]. When estimating the available data about the Ukhta oil A.A.Chernov wrote in 1926: “In practical attitude with enough definiteness it is developed that both small number of oil horizons and their weak density with oil. That’s why industrial significance of the region is still very poor (emphasis added), moreover the whole region is situ--‐ ated in difficult economic conditions (underpopulation and farness of the region, lack of good communications and so on)” [17, p. 8].

It is interesting that when in 1929 the geologist N.N. Tichonovich proved the place of laying of the first borehole, spud--‐ ded by the OGPU Ukhta expedition and gave the fountain of oil (in the first day – about 4 tones), he prepared the written materials which justified his point of view.

Pic. 3. Academician I.M.Gubkin           These materials, given by OGPU for inspection to academi--‐ cian I.M. Gubkin and professor A.A. Chernov, got a positive estimate of the first, and the negative one of the second [18]. It means that even on theoretical level views of the leading scientists of the country on the problem of the Ukhta oil were antipodal.

Even in April 1931, when speaking on the conference about studying of productive forces of the region, A.A. Chernov announced: “I will not talk about the Ukhta region because it is well--‐ known for a long time. There are many literature information, and those new data which are pub--‐ lished in the previous year by a special expedition, which works in the Ukhta region, doesn’t intro--‐ duce anything new. There are new cased holes, one hole always produces oil, but nevertheless, the Ukhta region doesn’t promise us a great quantity of oil (emphasis added). The hole, which is exploited now, produces about 2 tones of oil, but we would like to count these tones in hundreds and thousands, but not in one. Whether there are any possibilities for it in the Pechora region?

Speaking about oil we must be more careful (emphasis added)” [15, p. 30].

Volumes of oil production in the Ukhta region in the first years of its industrial exploration were not great (in thousand tones): in 1929 — 0,005, in 1930 — 0,088, in 1931 — 0,250, in 1932 — 1,077. And the checklist of oil reserves was also limited by the first places: in 1930 Chibyusskoe minefield, in 1932 – Yagerskoye [1]. But even these achievements were result of the Ukhta expedi--‐ tion activity, but not the reason for its organization.

In such a way the Ukhta oil itself couldn’t be the reason for immediate sending of expedi--‐ tion to the river Ukhta for beginning of industrial--‐researching works, but such task can be formu--‐ lated before the heads of expedition. It is well--‐known, that in the report by N.N.Tichonovich, ad--‐ dressed to the head of the Ukhta expedition and dedicated to grounding of laying of the first borehole, there is such a phrase: “As the Ukhta expedition has a challenge definitively to solve the problem of the Ukhta region practical loyalty… (emphasis added)” [19, p.71]. This challenge was finally and positively solved only in 1933 [9]

Pic. 4. Academician V.I.Vernadsky

Problem of the Ukhta radium

A.S.Gumenuk gave an opinion, that the main reason for sending expedition to the river Ukhta was creation of radium pro--‐ duction here, and development and production of oil, coal and helium were just passing challenges [2]. It is known that in the be--‐ ginning of the XXth century radium became the most expensive and rare metal in the world. To the beginning of war, the need of the USSR in radium for the nearest 15--‐20 years was estimated in borders of 18--‐20 gram a year [20]. According to the data of A.E.Ferceman, the price for 1 mg. of pure radium in 1934 was 45 dollars, but in the nearest years it must be fall up to 35 dollars and estimate 70 thousands golden rubles for a gram [21]

Radioactive phenomenon of the uranium atoms was discovered in 1896 by G.Beckerel. In 1902 a couple P. and M. Curie discovered radium by the way of milling of uranium ores from Ioahimsteel. In 1903 P.Curie and L.Labord suggested an idea that warm, appearing by breakage of atoms is considered to be the unfailing source of Earth crust warming and a real source of energy for ongoing geological processes in it. This idea was supported and developed by professor of mineralogy and geology of Dublin University G.Jollie in the same year.

In 1910 V.I.Vernadsky addressed a meeting of the Academy of Sciences in Saint--‐Petersburg with the report: “Current problems in the area of radium”, where he proved the importance of systematic studying from geological and mineralogical points of view the appearance of radioac--‐ tivity in nature , which led to creation of Radium commission in the same year [22]. In 1910 V.I.Vernadsky pointed the main regions for revelation and studying of radioactive elements’ fields in the Russian Empire – Fergansk region, Ural and Caucasus. In 1911--‐1917 expeditions of the Academy of sciences worked in Ural, but industrial fields of radioactive elements haven’t been found [4].

In March 1918 in the Academy of sciences under chairman of N.S.Kurnakov took place a meeting on radium researches, where were A.P.Karpinsky, L.S.Kolovrat--‐Chirvinski, V.G.Hlopin and others. During this meeting A.E.Ferceman announced that SCNE suggested the Academy to organ--‐ ize a factory for radium extraction from raw materials, sequestered from “Fergansk Corporation for exploitation of rare metals”. A.E.Ferceman was charged to create a standing radium commis--‐ sion by CNPF (Commission for natural productive forces of the Academy of sciences). In such a way the first (special) department on rare elements and radioactive materials was created, the head of which was appointed V.I.Vernadsky, and his deputy – A.E.Ferceman. On the 16th of April S.F.Oldenburg and A.E.Ferceman announced department of SCNE chemical industry on material consent of CNPF to tae upon themselves organization of a factory in Perm province on the base of Bereznikovsky alkali--‐works and laboratory for extraction of radium from sequestrated materials. In May 1918 the First department of CNPF asked Council of People’s Commisars to take measures immediately to evacuate radioactive raw materials from Petrograd to Perm province and obtained the agreement of it [21].

Attempt to organize the pilot radium factory in Perm region in the village Berezniki on the river Kama was made in 1918. But difficulties of Civil war disturbed it. The director of the factory was L.N.Bogoyavlinsky [23].

The soviet radium industry began in the beginning of May 1920 in the village Bunduga (now Mendeleevsk, Tatarstan) on the most leading of those times chemical factory, which began its history from 1868. As the director of the factory I.Ya.Bashilov was appointed. There on barges through the Volga river from Turkmenistan the uranium ore was delivered.

The only deliver of ore in those days was Tuya--‐Muyunsky uranium--‐vanadium mine, which was situated in the northern forelands of the Altay Mountain range 35 km to the south--‐west from the town Osh (now the territory of Kyrgyzstan). Uranium in these mines was discovered in 1900. From 1907 to 1913 the minefield was exploitated by private «Fergansk corporation for exploitation of rare metals», which had its testing recycling factory in Petersburg. During this period it was recovered 820 tones of ore, 655 tones of which were taken to Petersburg and recycled in uranium and vanadium, which was exported in Germany because it didn’t find its sales in Russia. In 1914 a Moscow radium expedition worked on the ore, which included A.A.Chernov. After the revolution ore reserves, prepared for exploitation by the existing production, were estimated in the volume of 5 thousand tones and the ore was given for exploitation to Bondujsk factory. In 1922 foreigners began to be interested in the ore. They lodged a corresponding motion in SCNE concessional committee and got a refuse [20].

In November 1921 3 scientific--‐research departments were founded in Petrograd (Academy of sciences’ radium laboratory, radium department in State radiological institute and radium--‐chemical laboratory), which obtained the production of Bondujsk factory. In 1922 these departments were united into Radium Institute under the head of academician V.I.Vernadsky (now SPA «Radium institute named after V.G.Hlopin»).

In December 1921 on the factory in Bondug by V.G.Hlopin were obtained first home made radium drags, estimeted in 10 mg of radium [Unknown Ferceman]. In 1923 there was tooled the industrial production of radium. A factory in Bondug produced radium up to the year 1925. During this period of time 192 tones of uranium ore were processed and 2,3 grams of radium produced. A production in the town of Mendeleevsk still appears --‐ this is JSCo «Chemical factory named after L.Ya.Karpov».

In spring and autumn 1925 A.E.Ferceman was on expeditions on the mine Tuya--‐Myun in Turkmenia. In September 1925 A.E.Ferceman and A.N.Labuntsov got acquainted with uranium ores in Karelia, having found there rich in uranium compounds [21].

In April 1925 the First All--‐Union meeting on rare elements was called [21]. Since 1927 an exploitation of ore from Taboshar mining field in Tajikistan began, for which I.Ya.Bashilov developed original methods of radium releasing. In the middle of 1930s a training radium factory was founded there.

In summer 1926 by a chemist A.A.Cherepinnikov and science--‐technical member M.N.Vorobyov, parties of Geological committee expedition, which worked on the territory of the Ukhta region, was founded a high--‐level radioactivity of water from the hole № 1 «Kazennaya», drilled in 1912 г. Metrics, done by L.N.Bogoyavlinsky and A.A.Cherepinnikov in 1927 in Institute of applied geophysics radiometric subdivision, showed unusually high containing of radium in waters of this hole — 7,6 × 10--‐9 g/l. Radium bloomed out metamorphic blacks of the middle Timan by groundwaters, which had high content of barium chloride [20, 24].

Head of the OGPU Ukhta expedition and then Ukhta--‐Pechora trust Ya.M.Moroz later proved the importance of the Ukhta radium discovery in such a way: «Attention which the hole «Kazannaya» payed, is explained in the way that the hole gave a fountain of this water 60 qm a day, and this means that the hole threw across the surface 0,2 gram of radium, that means that from 1913 to 1929 it threw not less than 2,5 grams of radium. The importance of the last number will become evident when saying that for 30 years from discovery of radium, from 1899 till 1929 in all the countries it was mined less than 600 gram»1.

Making an assumption of the «radium reason» for direction of the OGPU Ukhta expedition in 1929, his supporters implied the impact of the future Ukhta water field in the Atom project of our country. But at the end of 1920s and beginning of 1930s the opportunity of atomic weapons creation was just hypothetic. And the atomic bomb itself as the way of nuclear explosive doesn’t contain radium but enriched plutonium.

On the 31st of March 1934 academician A.E.Ferceman sent to D.I.Sherbakov, a specialist in the field of geology and geochemistry of radioactive natural resources, member of Geochemical institute named after M.V.Lomonosov (later AS USSR institute of geochemistry, mineralogy and petrography) from Karlovy Vary a letter on results of radium (uranium) mines inspection situated in Ioahimov near Karlsbad. A scientist in his letter pointed out directions of radioactive materials usage, which existed in the world industry in those years: uranium for production of paints for glass and china industries; ferrouranium for metallurgy (bought by factories of Crupp and Japan); radiography of metals; luminous paints; water and bath cure from radioactive sources; study of influence of radiation on organism of a person [21]. Announcing on the XVIIth International geological congress in 1937, Moscow, V.I.Vernadskiy again underlined the importance of studying of natural radioactivity with the aim of obtaining of common international sample of geological time [22].

In such a way in those times there was no question in atomic energy usage. Before 1943 there were no practical works in the USSR in the area of atomic weapons creation. Even before the Great Patriotic War group of nuclear physicists of the Kharkov Institute of physic--‐technical researches suggested to start works on creation of extra--‐power explosive device, but didn’t find support in neither Defense people’s commissariat nor in State commission on military and industrial researches. In those times it was considered that creation of such a weapon was possible only theoretically, but unlikely to realize on practice in the nearest future. That’s why attention was concentrated on following foreign publications on atomic problem. In May 1942 Stalin received a letter from the future academician G.N.Flerov, who payed attention on the lack of opened publications on uranium problem since 1940, what could mean the beginning of works in the West upon atomic weapons. That fact together with the data of Intelligence service led to the moment when on the 11th of February 1943 Stalin signed the USSR Government deсree about the organization of projects on usage of atomic energy in military goals [25, 26]. On the 1st of December 1945 a decision on founding of Plutonium plant was concluded.

When estimating the role of the Ukhta radium production in the village Vodny in the history of our country we must take into account that before 1940s radium was the only source of nuclear radiation. Just this element played the most important role in formation of Russian atomic science and technic. With its help fundamental basement of radiochemistry and physics of the atomic core were put; it became the instrument for development of the first technology of extraction of plutonium from radioactive uranium, which provided the industrial derivation of plutonium for creation of atomic bomb. Consequently, the Ukhta radium was necessary for leading scientists of the country for decision of theoretical challenges, but could not be the main reason for practical interest of USSR government in the Pechora region resources.

Challenges of the USSR industrialization

The XVIth AUCP (b) conference, which took place on the 18--‐31st of December 1925, gave a guideline «to keep the direction on industrialization of the country»2. A United plenum CC and

AUCP CSC, which took place on 21--‐23rd of October 1927, when speaking about the directions of the five--‐year plan of national economy, noticed: «In the area of new productions there must be developed and put again:…exploitation of radium (emphasis added)»3. The XVth AUCP (b) confer--‐ ence in December 1927 charged the CC of the party to continue with unremitting speed the politics of socialistic industrialization and approved the intention of innovational development of the country: «In the field of new productions must be developed or put again:…exploitation of radium»4.

The XVIth conference AUCP (b) which took place on 23--‐29th of April 1929 without a dissenting vote adopted a resolution «Of a five--‐year plan of national economy development». There was said nothing of oil and radium, and speaking about coal it was planned to provide more than the double growth of its exploitation during a five--‐year period at the cost of great mine construction on Donbas, Urals, Kuzbas, and Moscow lignite basin. There is nothing about the Pechora and Komi Autonomous Area. Later according the Urals there is an explanation «Industrialization of the country can’t be supported only by the Southern coal field. A life--‐ sustainable condition for fast industrialization of the country is considered to be the creation of the second main coal--‐metal centre of the USSR by the way of usage of rich coal and resources fields of the Urals and Siberia»5. Taken place on the 10--‐17th of November 1929 CC AUCP (b) conference demands to take all possible measures upon increase of production against the appointed plan, particularly --‐ in the area of ore and coal--‐gas carbon.

In such a way, in the plans of the USSR industrialization in the years of a first five--‐year plan it was said nothing of the Pechora region exploitation, unlike Donbas, Kuzbas and other areas. A challenge was put to organize the exploitation of radium without specification of this exploitation’s region.

Komi governments’ attempts in development of economic potential of the region in 1920s.

Founded by the decree of ARCEC director in 1921 Komi Autonomous Area got an ineligible economic inheritance, among which there were 3 used--‐to--‐be ore mining and smelting factories and one saltworks. Taken place in August of the same year first regional conference of miners and metalworkers faced the following problem: «The conference faced the question head--‐on: to be or not to be for metallurgy factories in the region, which during the revolution and the civil war substantially decreased its production and caused damages for the state. They didn’t have working capital as all the products of 1920th year without payment were exported by Severodvinsk gubsovnarhoz» [27, p.5]. Agriculture in those times gave 94% of all the production of the region’s people’s economy [28].

It is well--‐known that during 1920s governments of Komi AA for many times applied different central organs of the USSR for sending to the territory of the Pechora region geological prospecting expeditions for deep and complex investigation of its resources[9, 6, 24].

Even in April 1921 by the first head of Zyryansk (Komi) representative by Narkomnats D.A.Batiev it was laid on an idea of the Ukhta resources development by the powers of prisoners. He proposed to organize a great concentration camp on the river Ukhta and to send there prisoners from the whole Russia. Though the proposal wasn’t confirmed by any calculation, nevertheless, CC RCP (b) Politburo which took place on the 20th of April 1921 adopted a special decision on organization on the Ukhta river of such a camp for 10--‐20 thousand people, which wasn’t realized [29].

Active position of the Komi government influenced both providing of geological investigation of the Pechora region

Pic. 5. Dmitri Alexandrovich Batiev

territory, and supporting of central governmental attention to the problem of search of the Ukhta oil and the Pechora coal.

Evident success in industrialization of the region also took place. For example, in 1932 unit weight of industrial production in economics of Komi was 63,5%, and by the year 1936 г. it attained 71,2%. Though, the leading industrial branch in Komi ASSR belonged in 1930s to timber harvesting (more than 84%) [30].

Beginning of GULAG

Here is an opinion that one of the incitements of the beginning of investigation of the Pechora region was reformation of the system of Soviet corrective labour institutions in the end of 1920s. Government didn’t cope with expenses on prisoner welfare, which number was about 200 thousand people. This situation was stated by the Soviet government on the 26th of March 1928 on the issue of People’s Commissar for Justice [1, 7]. In 1928 People’s Commissar for Justice N.M.Janson proposed to use the labor of prisoners for heavy increase of timber export by the war of creation of timber camps on the north of the european part of the USSR, but this project was temporarily «frozen» [31].

Soviet of People’s Commissars and ARCEC in February 1929 proposed the OGPU as a single action to isolate in concentration camps for about 8 thousand people: thieves, habitual criminals, criminals, horse--‐stealers and others. On the 13th of April 1929 to the Russian SFSR Soviet of People’s Commissars a staff report by people’s commissariats of justice, domestic affairs and OGPU was sent, where it was proved the necessity of passing from the current system of penal institutions to the system of concentration camps, organized by the type of OGPU, where it was proposed to send all the prisoners, which were convicted and sentenced to 3 years and more, for colonization of northern areas and development of natural resources. It was supposed to let the OGPU to organize concentration camps in the regions of Olonz (Karelia) and Ukhta with the common capacity of 30 thousand people. By that fact, it must be the reduction in expenses for prisoner welfare from 250 rubles a year to 100 rubles a year [7].

On the 13th of May 1929 a decision of CC RCP (b) Politburo approved the adoption of a system of common usage for compensation of prison labor, who were convicted and sentenced to not less than 3 years, in the regions of Ukhta, Indigi and others. It was created a commission for appreciating of prison labor use conditions. Parties of the commission were Russian SFSR people’s commissar for justice N.M.Yanson (commission chairman), vice--‐chairman of OGPU G.G.Yagoda, Russian SFSR counsellor N.V.Krilenko, Russian SFSR people’s commissar for domestic affairs V.N.Tolmachev and USSR people’s commissar for labor N.A.Uglanov [31, 7].

On the 15th of May 1929 the first session of the committee took place, where were invited OGPU and NKVD panel member G.I.Boykiy, special agent by OGPU panel membership Feldman and representative of Russian SFSR prosecutor's office Traskovich. A wide range of thoughts took place, which were sometimes absolutely different. N.M.Yanson again payed attention on timber development on the North, which can be decided by the colonization of prisoners. G.G.Yagoda boosted creation of northern camps: «Working and getting all the minimum needful depending on intensity of labor, by the end of the 3--‐year vacation, prisoners will get some hundreds rubles, with which they will have an opportunity, when exiting the prison, to organize their village household or wait for job in a town. With the number of measures of both administrative and household assistance, we can induce them to stay on the North, here colonizing its remote areas» [31, с. 145]. Later, in 1930 G.G.Yagoda in more detail unpacked the idea of North exploitation by prisoners: «Question on camps must be changed on another orientation. Now camp is considered to be just crowd of prisoners, whose labor we use nowadays, when giving no perspective for both a prisoner and us… We must change camps into colonized villages, when not waiting for expiration of sentence…The whole idea of giving us prisoners --‐ is abolishment of prisons…We must as soon as possible colonize the North (emphasis added) [31, p. 155]. On the meeting N.A.Uglanov gave an opinion that concentration camps must be meant for hopeless habitual criminals. Moreover, organization of camps for 10 or more thousand people he considered to be ball--‐breaker. V.N.Tolmachev considered organization of the camp on the Ukhta to be impossible, because it was difficult to drive a road there and OGPU would not cope with difficult household challenges on organization of such a camp. He expressed an apprehension that creation of such camps would cause political backwashes --‐ in the branch of white emigration and in bourgeois states there would begin talkies about chekists’ confines. N.V. Krilenko, conversely, saw no reasons to postpone creation of camps. G.I.Boikyi announced that OGPU was ready to undertake building of already designed highway to the Ukhta, and also railway Kotlas --‐ Ust’--‐Sisolsk. He said: «People's Commissariat for Lines of Communications can’t do it in supposed time, as it could not find workers, but we will cope with it. A person, who crossed over through Solovki, is a stamp in the idea of labor attainments, because we arrange fixed assignments and ask for their strict accomplishment, when taking into account beforehand possibilities and capabilities of prisoners» [31, p. 146]. As a result of interchange of views it was resolved to charge OGPU to begin organization of concentration camp in the region of Ukhta and to ask for funding 1,200,000 rubles this year [31].

A 17th of May 1929 commission sent a memorandum to I.V.Stalin, in which it demanded to charge OGPU to start organization of concentration camp in the Ukhta region. This suggestion was confirmed by the CC AUCP (b) Politburo from the 23rd of May 1929 [31, 7]. One more meeting took place on the 13th of June, where N.M.Yanson formulated the main idea of camp organization: «From the point of household view, camps must become pioneers of new regions’ settlement by the way of cheap prisoners labor use (emphasis added). That’s why questions of technical equipment are secondary; the aim of camps --‐ to clean the way to uncrowded districts, investigation of areas, beginning of natural resources exploitation. When these areas will be in the way of exploitation interesting, they will be given to production bodies (emphasis added), and camps will be replaced to new areas with the same aims of collaboration» [31, p. 151].

On the 27th of June 1929 a regulation of CC AUCP (b) was issued, in one of which sentences it was asked OGPU to organize on the Ukhta territory a new concentration camp in the aim of the region’s colonization and exploitation of natural resources by mean of prisoners’ labor use. This regulation was repeated by the Soviet People’s commissariat form the 11th of July 1929

[31, 7]. In such a way, sanction for organization of the Ukhta concentration camp was given from the Soviet state’s top leadership. But what was the reason for choosing the Ukhta region is not known according to the documents.

Role of A.A.Chernov and N.N.Tichonovich in organization of the Ukhta expedition

There are some facts in literature, that on the 9th of January 1929 «A.A.Chernov and A.F.Lebedev announced a report of Pechora coals and oil in government» [6, p. 111], which became the foundation for appearing of keen interest of USSR leaders to Pechora region in common and to the Ukhta region in particular. In one of researches it is noticed: «Even on the 9th of January 1929 A.A.Chernov and A.F.Lebedev made a report by the OGPU panel member Bokia on Pechora basin coals and oil. As a result of their reports in spring of the same year a special expedition to the Ukhta river was sent, which got down to work at coal and oil» [32, p.13]. Though, such facts are given without any source references. A.A.Chernov himself never took a credit for organization and direction of the expedition to the river Ukhta.

According to the data of the Komi Republic National archives, on the 26th of June 1929 A.A.Chernov made a report on geological researches of the Pechora region on Komi Autonomous area executive committee enlarged meeting. Resuming many years of pioneering in Pechora region, the scientist noticed: «Anyway, here are colossal coal resources, but limitation of fundings given by Geological committee, didn’t let to spread research works at a larger scale» [10, p. 30]. Later in minutes of the session it was noticed: «Approximate numbers of geologist Lebedev on use of Pechora coal for need of transport (river, sea and railway) attracted great attention of Geological committee and other central organizations for the further investigation of the Pechora region in order to define quality of coals. Chief mountain--‐fuel administration took his point of view about production of deep--‐hole prospecting next year, for which it appointed the necessity of fund allocation of 2 000 000 rubles. Such a hastiness Chertov doesn’t approve (emphasis added), because Pechora coals ask for serious investigation especially in quality, to define an opportunity of coal use in this or that branch of national economy» [10, p. 30 --‐ 31].

Even in April 1931 when speaking at the Second conference on production forces study of the Northern region in Arkhangelsk, A.A.Chernov announced: «…nowadays the Pechora coal is put for exploitation summarily, though we --‐ scientific and practical figures --‐ would like this action to postpone a little (emphasis added), because it could lead us into trouble. We have no fields, prepared for exploitation, but the position is following --‐ to recover right now. Those engineers (I don’t belong to them, but I was with them on SCNE meetings), who were engaged with investigation of Pechora coals, as for example, engineer Matveev and Lebedev proposed for experiential mining in 1931 different quantities: engineer Lebedev proposed to focus on 2000 tones, engineer Matveev, for safety precaution, proposed to mine 500 tones. On the SCNE meeting by Mezhlauk the assignment was increased up to 10 thousand tones with proposition to make them from three regions. As in any new and great deal, we have to take hazards. Three regions, which were noticed on the meeting at Mezhlauk, are situated on Adz’va, Nech and Vorkuta» [15, p. 27]. Though the scientist accepted decisions of governmental bodies as guidelines for action, which is impossible to argue: «…temps of our building demand it. They dictate us speed--‐up of both investigation and exploitation, and on this question we have an instruction (emphasis added) to enter upon the path of coal exploitation» [15, p. 16].

On the 26th of June 1929 A.A.Chernov gave a report on the meeting of different organizations’ representatives in Komi Regional Executive Committee, where he announced that «presence of great reserves of oil on Ukhta in the investigated region, where oil cropped on the earth, was doubtful» [19, p. 63]

The head of the OGPU Ukhta expedition geological service, and later Ukhtpechlag and

Pic. 6. Nikolay Nikolaevich Tichonovich

Ukhta--‐Pechore trust, N.N.Tihonovich (pic.6), when being Director's Assistant of the Geological committee, was arrested on the 18th of November 1928 on the charge of espionage activities and economic counterrevolution, and was jailed into Butyrskaya prison. He was accused in performance of beforehand artificially low reserves of oil in Grozninsky region, sending of reconnaissance in those regions, where was no oil, communication support with ex oil owners and espionage activities [18]. A scientist was sentenced to supreme measure of punishment, which was changed into 10 years of labor camps. Later he remembered circumstances of the Ukhta expedition preparing: «Collusion began in investigating authority. I was asked a question: «What is Ukhta?» There is negative literature about Ukhta (emphasis added), I didn’t follow it during last years. I used to be there (in 1900 and 1901 --‐ author), but what was there during latest years? There were some holes. «Give me material, --‐ I answered, — and I will tell». The material was given. I looked it through, wrote a report and expressed a position, that because the theory of Chernishov was rejected, it was considered to be so important factor, that there was a purpose to overview them. Oil was founded too far away (it is intended boreholes of Russian association «Neft’», scudded 1914--‐1916 in the region of the Chib’ya river, left influx of the Ukhta River — author), according to the theory of Chernishov there could be no oil --‐ it must have been verified. I plan expedition with about 100 people, a number of geographers, topographers, drilling rig is light. To inspect, and later we will see, what will be (emphasis added).

A conversation took place in April (1929 --‐ author). I was invited to the meeting of unknown for me people, eight persons. I was brought the issue to a head: how to go to Ukhta? What things to take with? What equipment, how much food and so on? I wrote them the route and about equipment. I wrote that they should take there everything --‐ up to the last nail. I pointed them 2 ways: old way and northern way --‐ there more difficult cargoes can be carried and it was difficult to carry them through Izhma. Being 195 people we constructed the expedition. I didn’t pick up to select drillpipes. From my investigator I heard that there were great fundings in the Ukhta and I went there. I got cold feet. This region I considered to be practically hopeless (emphasis added)» [33, 7].

According to other data, N.N.Tichonovich from the USSR CEC party S.V.Kosior it was firstly offered a choice: camp in Kazakstan or in Ukhta. But the answer was practically determined without regard to opinion of a scientist for Ukhta [33]. Even coming to Ukhta and preparing a memorandum to the head of the Ukhta expedition about the place of laying of a borehole on the 23rd of November 1929, N.N.Tichonovich noticed: «…a practical loyalty of the region is still not determined (emphasis added), even for some its part» [19, p. 71]. In such a way, opinion of N.N.Tichonovich, evidently, played the decisive role in the choice of expedition arrival place --‐ to the Ukhta river. Though the scientist himself considered this region to be of little promise for organization of urgent oil production, but needed in geopolitical investigation and follow--‐up of sinking results. A.A.Chernov was for a careful approach and didn’t rush things, but he thought that it was senseless to protest against fast industrial exploitation of the Pechora region.

A brief history of the OGPU Ukhta expedition (1929--‐1931)

Organization of expedition was charged to Administration of Northern camps of special operations (ANORCSP) in town Kem’. In May 1929 in the Solovetsky camp there were sent an ex--‐ officer of Security of Smolny and Kremlin E.P.Skaya (he became the head of expedition konvoy) and S.F.Sidorov, who was charged as the head of expedition, for selection in transit camp in Kem’ for future participants of expedition.

On the 5th of July 1929 139 people and equipment was carried on board the ship «Gleb

Bokiy» which at dawn of the next day unberthed the Kem’. On the 8th of July in Arkhangelsk people, food and equipment were overcharged to the ice ship «Umba», which on the 9th of July was put out to a sea. On the 13th of July they arrived to outlet of the river Pechora, to the place of future Naryan Mar. Overcharged from barge, expedition continued its way up the river to the village Shel’yaur, than down the river Izhma, leading boats on binder twines. Expedition was divided into «devisions». Each «devision» carried with binder twines one boat, full of equipment and food. On the 19th of August they arrived to the village Ust’--‐Ukhta. To the place of destination on the 21st of August came 125 people: part of prisoners ran away during the road, some freelances were dsmissed, and geologist M.P.Lipovsky was killed by the runaway prisoner.

Pic. 7. Yakov Moiseevich Moroz

On the 13th of October N.N.Tichonovich arrived to Ukhta, and on the 30th of October --‐ the second detachment, headed by Y.M.Moroz. On the 2nd of November 1929 he became the chief of the Ukhta expedition [34]. Even in 1929 from the previous boreholes there were produced 5 tones of oil. In April 1930 a new borehole № 5 was spudded from depth 338,7 m oil began to flow. Cheb’usskoye field of high--‐gravity oil was discovered in such a way and gave birth to development of oil production in Komi. In 1930 there were produced 88 tones of oil, in 1931 --‐ 250 tones, in 1932 --‐ 1070 tones. In the year 1938 Central commission on reserves gave sanction to field reserves at a rate of 1,6 mln. tones. During the whole period of exploitation up to the year 1957 there were produced 560 thousand tones of oil

In April 1931 a number of meetings of special commission, organized under Soviet of Labor and Defence and headed by USSR SCNE deputy chairman V.I.Mezhlauk took place. In meetings representatives of OGPU, Soyuzneft, Chief geological investigation administration, Arkhangelsk and Komi Autonomous area People’s commissariat of Water Transport and others took part. Results of the OGPU Ukhta expedition were approved [34]. On the 6th of June 1931 the Ukhta expedition was changed into Ukhto--‐Pechora labor camp [19]. On the 16th of November 1932 by the decree of Soviet of Labor and Defence on the base of camp an Ukhta--‐Pechora trust was created [7].

Conclusion

So, by the end of the 1920s there were no visible reasons for immediate implication of number of Pechora region natural resources (coal, oil, radium): they were underexplored, needed extra investigations and were situated in such faraway and unprovided with traffic ways regions, that scientists and specialists didn’t challenge to explore them foremost. Exploitation of the Ukhta oil and Pechora coals were situated in the phase of search, and the Ukhta radium was a subject of though current but scientific not practical (for example, military) interest.

The main reason for OGPU expedition send in 1929 to the Ukhta river was implication of USSR central governmental bodies order to create a new big concentration camp in this region. Decision on creation of such a camp was done as a result of discussion of the creation facility system modernization variants and of making a decision to use labor of prisoners for colonization of the USSR northern regions and exploitation of natural resources of these regions. Except that, the colonization itself was a priority task in comparison with challenges on creation of enterprises used for exploitation of natural resources.

Probably choice of Ukhta as the first point for organization of a camp and sending of OGPU expedition there was done under the influence of authoritative statement of N.N.Tichonovich about the possibility of the Ukhta region oil regions’ reconsideration. Maybe the opinion of OGPU highest--‐ranked executive G.G.Bokia, who studied in the Gorny institute and was ready to estimate conclusions of N.N.Tichonovich, also played its role.

Maybe one of causes for sending of expedition to the region of Ukhta was the following factor. In April 1929 from the borehole near Chusovsk Towns (Perm region), spudded for exploitation of potassium salt, an oil fountain unexpectedly began; it gave birth to development of Volgo--‐Ural oil--‐and--‐gas province and again revived attention of the USSR central establishments to the problem of the Pechora region oil bearing capacity [24, 19].

Surely in choosing Ukhta its role played such factors, influencing exploration of our country’s Northern regions, as authoritarianism and specific structure of the USSR state power, which let to make the most important decisions on political and economic questions by charmed circle [35]. It is well known that many decisions on exploration of the North were «top secret». That’s why it was hardly surprising when in December 1933 M.I.Kalinin from a rostrum of the ARCEC IVth session announced: «We know too little about the work, which was done on Pechora on exploitation of coal and other natural resources. Anyway, in the nearest future the problem of the Pechora exploitation will rise in all its magnitude and its results will be probably greater than we expect nowadays»[36, p. 40].

And really, a great work on exploitation of the Pechora region was undertaken, which gave its evident and great results even by that time, though it was practically not known about it. Only on the 3rd of February 1934 a chairman of the USSR State plan V.V.Kuibishev, when delivering the report of the second five--‐year--‐plan period on the XVIIth AUCP (b), openly announced all the gathering parties: «One of the greatest problems of the Northern region, which decision will be started in the second five--‐year plan period, is considered to be development of coal and oil fields of the Pechora river basin, which would let provide with high--‐energy fuel the Northern marine fleet, industries of Murmansk and Northern regions» [10, p. 42].

Really, some even very poor data on results of works in the Pechora region were introduced in the USSR State plan reporting according to the results of the first five--‐year plan period. In chapter «Fuel» it was noticed: «A number of new coal fields are placed into service, including big Karaganda basin, Bukachachinsk field, Tkvarchelsk, Pechora coals, Ukrainian brown coals and a number of others»6. There was nothing about the Ukhta oil. Particularizing in his results on development of many national republics and regions as part of the USSR, State plan counted for necessary passingly to name Komi Autonomous area: «Great success in the sphere of household building is taken in other republics and regions of USSR --‐ in Karelia, in Komi, in national regions and republics of Northern Caucasus, in Kara--‐Kalpak, Oirotia, Hakassia, Mountain Shoriya and others»7.

One has the impression that sending of expedition to the Ukhta was a secret and for local government, with whom it was not necessary to discuss this question. A chairman of Komi Regional Executive Committee I.G.Koyushev, when reporting on the 5th of July 1929 on the kommunist and Komsomol member meeting of town Ust’--‐Sysolsk said: «According to the reports of professor Chernov, a big expedition is coming by the sea to Ukhta (about 150 people) for deep and wide exploitation of oil» [24, p. 35]. That means that chairman of Komi got known about the expedition from the scientist. By that fact, it is also known, that on the 26th of June 1929 A.A.Chernov made a report on geological investigations of the Pechora region in 1929 on enlarged meeting of Komi different establishments’ representatives, where he announced the direction to the Pechora region of three investigation parties --‐ to the river Izhma, in Ust’--‐Voya, on Small and Big Kozhva, but he said nothing of great expedition to Ukhta [19].

The following specifics of development of the North in those years also attracts attention --‐ not large--‐scale, seizing great territories, but «patchy» decision of remote areas’ challenges [37]. Ukhta in this meaning --‐ is a typical example of such a decision. Next years this «patch» gave its «sparks» which fired «hearths» of Yarega, Water fields, Edzhid--‐Kirty and Vorkuta.

Similar to Ukhta a mining and chemical trust «Apatit» was founded on the Kola peninsula. Komi ASSR and the Kola peninsula has incredible analogies by both time and precipitation of industrial centers’ creation. From June to October 1929 there was a building of 27--‐kilometer drift way from Apatity to branch railway line Leningrad--‐Murmansk by the strength of prisoner population of ANORCSP, sent from Solovetsky islands. In August 1929 the first geological borehole at Apatity mountains gave core salvage with rich grade of appetites in the interval from 30 to 200 meters, which let to estimate its reserves in one billion tones. In November 1929 a true «Apatit» was created for exploitation and refinery of apatite ore [38].

Moreover, in July 1929 to the Franz--‐Joseph Land an expedition on icebreaker ship «G.Sedov» was sent under the heading of O.Y.Shmidt. On the Hooker Island a USSR flag--‐raising ceremony took place, which could mean accomplishment of the USSR CEC decree form 15th of April 1926 on joining of the archipelago to the USSR [39].

On the 17th of July 1930 an icebreaker «A.Sibiryakov» arrived in the bay Varneka (island Vaigach) with the first group of chekists and prisoners of the OGPU Vaigach expedition, headed by F.I.Eihmans. A few days later a new group of prisoners was delivered on board the icebreaker «Malygin» and ships «Gleb Bokiy» and «Myatel». In such a way works on exploitation of galenical ore on the Vaigach island began. On the 23rd of July 1930 a decree № 1 was prepared signed by F.I.Eihmans: «Based on USSR SPC decree and immediate order of Unified State Political Department to consider OGPU Vaigach expedition arrive this day and start working… As agreed with the leading bodies of OGPU I announce that all the prisoners of Vaigach expedition will use all the privileges and advantages in not only early parole, but also after release each prisoner will attain facilities and opportunities for future live with the immediate clearing of all before and latest criminal records, when they will deserve it by their labor and a great wish to keep up with labor population of the Soviet State» [40, p. 286].

On the 11th of November 1931 a regulation of CC AUCP (b) was adopted «Of Kolyma», where the following challenge was set: «For forcing of gold exploitation in upper Kolyma to create a special trust with direct subordination to CC AUCP (b)» [41, p.7]. On the 13th of November 1931 a regulation of Labor and Defense Council about organization of a State trust on road and industrial building in the region of upper Kolyma --‐ «Dal’stroy» was adopted [10].

On the 23rd of June 1935 a decision of the USSR SPC «About building of Norilsk factory», where exploitation of nickel and building of a factory with power of 10 thousand tones of nickel a year was charged on Central Administration of Prison Camps, appeared [10].

«Focality» of the exploration of the North was the main principle of the USSR politics in 1930s. During the first conference on location of production bodies, which took place in autumn 1932, the chairman of the USSR State Plan V.I.Mezhlauk announced that state payed too much attention to decision of Northern challenges. Northern group of the USSR State Plan under the command of S.V.Slavin prepared a concept of socialistic exploration of the North, which was announced on the conference and became the leading for acceptance of executive decisions about the North in 1930s. One of the leading principle concepts was following: exploration of the North must be of a limited character because of stepping difficulties in the northern regions and increase in the cost of works here, it is important to build on the North just those enterprises which are caused by the absolute necessity and couldn’t be build in other regions with more effectiveness and less expenses [42].

Dotty or «patchy» principle of the Northern exploration was stated in the speech of the Northern Sea Route Authority head O.Y.Shmidt during the All--‐Union meeting of Soviets in 1935 «During czarist autocracy there were no wishes for development of the Northern economy…During czarist autocracy we knew nothing of natural resources of the North. But now we know, that there are polymetallic ores; coal, enough for development of household on the North; and oil is already being spudded» [41, p. 163].

Charging the challenge of Northern investigation to OGPU, evidently, was connected with the possibility of this organization to solve difficult problems fast and effectively, including the problem of labor resources. With common, unforced methods this problem was impossible to solve. For example, A.A.Chernov in 1931 wrote: «…now when we really put not only investigation of the Pechora coal but also its exploitation, the question --‐ where to take labor resources from --‐ is considered for us to be highly important and rather difficult to solve. On the meeting in SCNE we had to stop on the idea to take qualified people from Donbas and Moscow--‐area basin, though we need them also there for exploitation of coal» [15, p. 23]. OGPU found the needful labor resources.

Northern region party leadership agreed with the methods of OGPU, which is noticed in the letter of the AUCP (b) Northern kraicom first secretary S.A.Bergavinov, sent «top--‐secret» and «back in 24 hours» to the secretaries of village regional committees, town committees, Nenetz regional committee and Komi regional committee in 1929: «Nowadays from deporteed kulak families there are more than one thousand on the North. These are great number of our enemies, and these enemies are finally acerbated, thus it is that mass which: can become great labor and economic factor for development of the region’s production strength, and factor of political difficulties in the region, which account could exceed the bounds of a region. Everything depends on us, on our work and attention to this greatest in the history of party political issue…Party organizations must keep firmly in eye, that this measure, except the political, is also economic advantage for both country and region, because by this way we decide the colonization challenge (emphasis added), eliminate strong deficit in labor strength and investigate new areas on the North» [8, p. 41].