Trade between High Plateau Tries and Gourara: Insights from the 1892–1893 French Caravan Report

The Arab tribes of the High Plateaus in the Oran region maintained commercial activity and seasonal migration with various ksour (fortified villages) in the Gourara and Touat regions since ancient times. This was done via caravans or what is known as nej‘ —the nomadic tribe—until the end of the 19th century, relying on camels. This movement caught the attention of the French military authorities, who aimed to extend their influence into southern Algeria as a transit zone for their colonies in West Sudan. Detailed reports were prepared on the routes taken by these caravans, along with inventories of the natural resources available along those paths, such as water sources and vegetation. These reports also provided a detailed picture of the commercial transactions between the caravan members and the inhabitants of the various ksour in the Gourara region.

Accordingly, this paper investigates the details of the caravan movements from the southern Oran region toward Gourara, based on a report issued by the General Government of Algeria from the Arab Affairs Department of the Oran district, titled: Report on the Caravans of the Oran Division that Traveled to Gourara in 1892–1893 (rapport sur les caravanes de la division d’Oran qui se sont rendues au Gourara en 1892-1893).²

This will be explored through the following questions:

• •       What are the most significant caravans that entered the Gourara territories?

• •       What are the main routes taken by these caravans?

• •       What were the most important commercial exchanges between these caravans and the inhabitants

of the ksour in Gourara and Touat?

• 1)    Introduction to the Document (Source of the Study):

The report was issued by the commander of the Oran district, General Détrie, on June 9, 1893. It consists of 36 pages combining texts and statistical tables. The report offers a comprehensive account of the routes taken by the various caravans and the commercial exchanges between the tribes of the interior regions of western Algeria and the various ksour and villages of the Gourara region 3 in southern Algeria during the end of 1892 and the beginning of 1893.

The caravans were identified as belonging to tribes scattered across the plateaus and plains, listed as follows: the Rezaina 4 and Beni Matar caravan from the Saida annex, Hamyan, Trafi, and Ouled Sidi Sheikh from the El Bayadh annex, Guerifil, and the Amour caravan from Ain Sefra.

The report presents its data according to the following structure: tracking the caravan’s journey in terms of distances covered per day, listing the major towns, villages, and ksour passed by at each stop, and recording all available information about every location where the caravan stopped or passed through. It emphasizes descriptions of water sources, forests, and vegetation. The report then discusses the commercial exchanges between these caravans and the residents of the Gourara ksour, offering detailed accounts of these transactions, and concludes by documenting the return journey of the caravans from the south to the north.

Therefore, this report serves as an eyewitness account of numerous historical events with economic and social dimensions. It also stands as a geographic reference for the routes connecting the Oran High Plateaus with the desert regions to the south during the late 19th century. This paper aims to explore the journey of the southern Oran caravans toward Gourara.5

The French interest in tracking caravan movements from north to south was not limited to gathering information. It was also driven by motives such as preparing for expansion at the expense of the Touat region and bringing it under French control. Colonel Malher, in a study published in the international military journal Revue Militaire Universelle , titled The Touat Question: The Means by Which France Can Extend Its Influence in the Erg Region , wrote:

“In early November 1893, some newspapers spoke about French military invasion projects targeting Tuat... Since the end of 1892, measures considered urgent for this purpose had already begun. The first fortress was built in Hassi Inifel, followed by two others directed toward Ain Salah and Ougrout.” 6

2)    The Rezaina and Beni Matar Caravan:

This caravan consisted of (539) individuals and used (1,694) camels.7 It assembled in El Kheither, from which it departed on November 24, 1892. After a journey of eight days, the caravan reached Mograr Tahtani, located within the Ain Sefra district. From this point, the caravan took the route leading to Tidmekt Oasis in the Gourara region. The journey took a total of seventeen and three-quarters (17¾) days. 8

• A.    The Route of the Caravan from North to South:

After a full day’s journey from Mograr Tahtani, the caravan reached El Outed, a rocky area covered with drinn , le baguel , and guetaf plants. It also had a well with abundant and good-quality water.

After another day’s travel, the caravan arrived at Zafrani. Around midday, it encountered Bir El Djerda, a well buried under sand, followed by Ghedir de Djerf El Kahal, which was dry that year. Zafrani had no water and the same vegetation as El Outed.

Then, after another full day’s march, the caravan reached Zaouche, where it passed the dry Ghedir de Guetran (El Ajayez), and Bir Mansoura, which offered limited water. In general, Zaouche had a dry ghedir and abundant vegetation similar to the previous areas.

On the fourth day of the journey, the caravan reached a place called Gharat Ghafoul, ⁹ a sandy route within the Wadi Namous basin, from which it veered westward at Jorf Hatfal, entering the dune region. Gharat Ghafoul was characterized by the spread of chih , remtz , drinn , and baguel , with scarce or no water. On the fifth day, the caravan reached Zemlet Mansour, a difficult path at the curve of Grin Zaia, named after a woman’s grave. It had no water and the same vegetation as before. After a full day’s travel, it arrived at Stheihat, a dune-covered area lacking water.

On the seventh day, the caravan reached Sidi Brahim ( Foum El Erg ), a sandy area where the shrine of Sidi Brahim stands, surrounded by a low dune wall. The area had neither water nor vegetation. ¹⁰

On the eighth day, the caravan arrived at Ras El Ma, a vast dune area with a difficult path, surrounded by the hilltops of Dayet Bou Abdallah and Nebka Ould Nabr. Water was absent, but thorny plants used for kindling were abundant.

On the ninth day, the caravan reached Hassi Hamri, known for its large dunes. Water was found at a depth of 2.5 meters—enough for people, but not for animals. Vegetation was absent. After another full day’s travel, the caravan reached Hassi Aida, which was also sandy. Its water was of poor quality and unfit for drinking, and it lacked vegetation. 11

On the eleventh day, the caravan reached the Ksar of Ouled Issa, 12 the first ksar in the Al-Aarich region. It included hundreds of close-knit families, a zawiya, and many oases. Water was abundant, supplied through an underground canal system extending about 8 km. Vegetation was plentiful and stretched for 3– 4 km around the ksar. After a one-day stop, the caravan reached Douran on the thirteenth day. Here, the Beni Matar caravan separated to conduct trade in Cherouine, then returned to Ouled Issa and remained there awaiting to merge with the Hamyan caravan for the return journey north.

Meanwhile, the Rezaina caravan continued south, arriving at Deldoul, ¹³ a sandy region with dense drinn vegetation. Deldoul comprised seven villages, the largest with about 300 houses. It was known for its springs and gardens, which produced various vegetables. ¹⁴

On the fifteenth day, the caravan reached Rabeh, a sandy plain with no vegetation, where all wells had become blocked. As a result, Rabeh had become a ruined and abandoned stop.

On the sixteenth day, the caravan reached Sbaa, 15 a sandy plain. The road passed through Gorbetan, a ksar with hundreds of houses, 10,000 palm trees, numerous springs and gardens. Ksar Sbaa consisted of about 300 homes built among oases, with many wells. Its dates were of poor quality.

On the seventeenth day, the caravan arrived at Tilelen, where the road followed the course of Wadi Zamran, filled with dazmran vegetation. After crossing a barren and sandy trail, a hill came into view before reaching Tilelen, revealing the Timmi oasis, 16 which contained fifteen ksour. 17 Ksar Tilelen was significant for Gorbetan, where two paths diverged—one toward Timmi and the other toward Tamentit. 18 After a full day of travel on a barren sandy road, the caravan reached on its eighteenth day the eighteenth station, also the most important on the route: Tamentit, which served as a commercial hub for various goods such as dates, 19 Filali leather, coffee, sugar, and tea arriving from Fes. 20

• B.    Main Trade Exchanges:

In Tamentit, the caravan members engaged in various commercial exchanges during their fourteen-day stay before returning along the same route. Upon reaching this station—the final point of the outbound journey—the report reveals details of the goods imported into Gourara with this caravan and their value according to the Saida market price.

The merchandise was diverse, including grains like wheat and fava beans; animal products such as butter, cheese, dried meat, and wool; mineral goods like silver; and manufactured goods such as pairs of candles. The following table details the imported goods and their financial value. 21

Type of Good	Quantities	Unit Price (Francs)	Amount in Francs
Metallic Currency	—	—	28,857
Piece of Wool	6,428	2.25	14,463
Double Decaliters of Wheat	3,008	5	15,040
Double Decaliters of Fava Beans	304	4.5	1,368
Kilograms of Butter	2,000	2	4,000
Kilograms of Cheese	1,965	0.60	1,179
Kilograms of Dried Meat	1,100	0.75	825
Pairs of Candles	80	1.20	96
Total	—	—	65,828

The table clearly shows the diversity of goods transported to these regions, which thereby serve as a source of supply for items that are difficult to produce locally. Most of these goods are of local origin.

As for the goods purchased from the Gourara markets, the report presents a detailed table of these products and their financial value according to Saida market rates: 22

Product Name	Quantity	Unit Price (Francs)	Amount in Francs
Tinnasser Dates	643	30	19,290
Hamira Dates	634	40	25,360
Teggaza Dates	437	33	14,421
Tinchoud Dates	110	53	5,830
Bag of Hror	1,300	4	5,200
Bag of Henna	1,273	3	3,819
Burnous (traditional cloak)	548	20	10,960
Women’s Shawls	1,723	10	17,230
Various Borrowings (misc.)	—	—	—
Total	—	—	106,020

The goods brought from Gourara markets to the north are varied, led by the many types of dates, followed by other goods ranging from food items and clothing to cosmetic products, etc.

The report provides a financial assessment of these trade operations and calculates the profit volume of the Rezaina caravan.

From the subtraction of the value of goods acquired from Gourara from the value of goods transported to this region—minus the losses incurred by the caravan during its return to its homeland due to an attack by bandits on January 13 in the Sidi Brahim area, which cost the caravan three riders and a sum of 31,858

Francs—the net profit of the caravan was 8,334 francs, equivalent to 1 3%.

3.    Second: The Hamyan Caravan 24

The report indicates that the Hamyan caravan numbered 2,157 individuals and 7,678 camels, after the Hamyan tribe had formed several groups which gathered at the departure point, namely Mograr el Tahtani (in the district of Ain Sefra). As for the departure date of the caravan, it was November 26, 1892.

• A.    Caravan Route during the First Stage:

The report divides the caravan's journey into two stages, with the first summarized in the following table: 25

Date	Duration	Major Locations on Route	Notes
26/11/1892	8 hours	Mograr el Tahtani	—
27/11/— —	8 hours	El Outed	The caravan waters the camels
29/11/— —	9 hours	Rouib Errahil	No water or pasture
30/11/— —	12 hours	El Mansoura	Well with low water supply
01/12/— —	10 hours	Djorf El Atfal	The caravan waters the camels
02/12/— —	9 hours	Gharaet El Ghafoul	No water available
03/12/— —	12 hours	El Gheral	No water available
04/12/— —	8 hours	Sidi Brahim	—
05/12/— —	10 hours	Ras El Ma	—
06/12/— —	12 hours	Belgueziale

07/12/— —	8 hours	El Kasri
08/12/— —	18 hours	Ouled Issa

B.    The Second Stage:

Upon arrival at Ouled Issa, the Hamyan caravan stopped for two days to rest. On December 10, the caravan members split into groups and followed different routes. The first route started from Ouled Issa toward Tsabit, during which the distances were estimated in kilometers and the main stopping points of the caravan were identified.

Ouled Issa consists of two villages, each supplied with water: the eastern-western village receives water from the Erg (sand dune area), while the southern village gets water from the northeast. To the north of the ksar are dense grazing areas, where vegetation such as boukhlala , eddern , retem ( le retem ), aggaia ( l’aggaia ), dzamran ( le dzamran ) ²⁶ grows—plants which form key food sources for camels. The oases of the ksar contain an estimated 35,000 palm trees.

After a 25 km journey heading north-south, the caravan reached Touba, passing first by Tsefat, a small ksar with an oasis of about 15,000 palm trees and a water source flowing from the northeast. To the west lies Touba, an uninhabited point lacking water but covered with dzamran and aggaia plants. It serves as a camping site for the caravan due to the long distance from Ouled Issa. 27

After traveling 35 km, the caravan reached Ouled Rached, crossing a sabkha (salt flat) with difficult terrain due to sand dunes. Ouled Rached is a large ksar with abundant palm trees and water, and it too features dzamran and aggaia vegetation.

Moutrefa and Sehla: 28 These are two ksars about 500 meters apart, reached after a 10 km march. Both have many palm trees, abundant water, and the same plant life. However, relations between the two ksars are strained. 29

Tsabit: 30 Located 25 km further, Tsabit consists of seven ksars: Aryaras, Bernkan, Hamad, Al-Ayyad, Oujlan, El-Meiz, and El-Habla—the last being inhabited by shorfa (nobles), cousins of the Sultan. The many palm trees are found west of the ksars and are described as beautiful and highly valuable.

The second route runs from Ouled Issa to Toukki, a journey of about 47 km. Notable along this path are Touba and Qarat Touba, a series of hills stretching 15 km east to west. After 22 km, the caravan reaches Toukki. Along the way, it crosses the barren Dzamrania plain, then the northern shore of the sabkha, about 7 km from Touba. This sabkha is characterized by its firm depth and contains an active salt mine,

though there is no water or vegetation between it and Toukki, which is part of the Deldoul group.

Deldoul consists of a wide oasis with about 50,000 palm trees, within which are six villages arranged in a crescent from south to north, with both ends pointing east. From north to south, the villages are: Ouled Abd Mssamed, Toukki Baraka, Ouled Belfedoul, Guechtene, and Ouled Abou.

During this leg, the Hamyan caravan would have visited a large number of Gourara towns. The following table shows the various tribal groups and the main ksars in which they conducted trade: 32

Tribe Name	Total	Ksars Where Each Tribe Traded
Bekkakra	6	Bernkan,    Oujlan,    Ougroute,    Tarmine, Charouine, Baraka
Ouled Mansoura	2	Oujlan, Timy
Akrama	2	Bernkan, Timy
Beni Metref	2	Bernkan, Bouda
Ouled Serour	123	Ougroute, Timy, Hamaou
Sendan	2	Jedaira, Talmine
Ouled Farès	3	El-Meiz, El-Habla, Timy
Ouled Ahmed	12	M’darfa, Deldoul
Mghawlia	2	Charouine, Ougroute
—	2	El-Meiz
Ouled Mubarak	1	Moutrefa
Ouled Toumi	1	Boudi
Mekan	1	Timy
Ouled Massoud	123	Deldoul, Ouled Rached, Sebla

On January 1, 1893, the trading operations of the Hamyan caravan concluded. All members gathered again at Ouled Issa, from where the return journey began. They arrived at Moqrar el Tahtani around January 10, 1893, at which point each group departed toward its original homeland.

C.    Main Commercial Transactions

The report provides detailed data on the commercial transactions carried out by the Hamyan caravan in the Gourara region, structured in the following tables:

Table 1 – Goods Transported to Gourara and Their Value (Based on the Market Prices in El-Méchria) 33

Commodity	Quantity	Unit Price (francs)	Total Value (francs)
Sheep	1314	15	19,710
Wheat (decaliter)	6540	3	19,620
Barley (decaliter)	420	1.5	630
Fava beans	128	3	384
Wool (fleece)	19000	1.25	23,750
Sheep ghee (2 kg)	1247	2	2,494
Cheese (decaliter)	1335	5	6,675
Dried meat	428	4	1,712
Oil	15	40	600
Butter	750	26	19,500
Cash	–	–	54,885.5
Pepper (kg)	120	5	600

Total value of goods: 101,920.50 francs

Cash : 54,885.50 Francs

Overall Total : 156,805.50 Francs

From this table, it is evident that the majority of transported goods comprised agricultural food products, followed by animal-based foodstuffs, highlighting the importance of this provisioning for the region, especially for items that are not locally produced.

Table 2 – Goods Transported from Gourara to Hamyan Tribal Lands 34

Commodity	Quantity	Unit Price (francs)	Total Value (francs)
Tinchoud Dates	200	80	16,000
Hamira Dates	1975	55	108,629
Tigaza Dates	910	45	40,950
Tin Rasser White Dates	1670	50	83,500
Spices (number of sacks)	200	3	600
Dates for camels	500	0.50	250
Henna	5	150	750

•       Total: 250,675 francs4.    The Trafi Caravan 35

This caravan was affiliated with the mixed municipality of El Bayadh (formerly Giréville), within the broader administrative scope of the colonial command. The caravan consisted of 1,074 individuals and 2,933 camels. It assembled and departed from El-Mengoub, heading towards Timimoun, 36 departing on 20 December 1892 and returning on 20 February 1893.

• A. Caravan Route

• •    After departing El-Mengoub, the caravan traveled 55 km to El-Gharidat, where it camped. The main fodder plants at this stop were Rqiq , Raq , El-Melfet , El-Khaddam , and Arfaj . No water was available at this station.

• •    The second stage covered 70 km to El-Ma'lmia / El-Mahraq El-Kebir. The road was rocky and crossed three valleys known as Demkhat . Eventually, the caravan reached Khalwa of Sidi Sheikh, known for its lakes ( dayas ). Upon reaching three converging lakes, the path led to Mehriqat Ouled Sidi El-Hadj Ahmed. The terrain became increasingly rocky, and the only viable route was through three deep lakes, each 5–6 km wide. The vegetation included Rqiq , Alma , and Der'n , with limited water, though there were deep underground sources. ³⁷

• •    The third stage was 60 km to the landmark Qarat En-Na’am (Ostrich Hill), reached via Foum Ez-Zaggag , Daya Redab Aicha , and Es-Sattihah , a mixed terrain of rock and sand. The caravan camped at Qarat En-Na’am, with vegetation similar to previous locations.

• •    After a further 50 km, the caravan reached Merkh Plateau, where it camped at Thniyat Sidi Slimane. The vegetation remained the same, but water was again absent. ³⁸

The fifth stage covered 30 km to the landmark Hammani, a critical point as it marked the entry into the Erg (great sand dunes) region. Navigating these dunes required the caravan to be under the leadership of a knowledgeable guide. The remaining 150 km to Timimoun included stops at: Daya Ramadiya, El Merita,

Qasr Sidi Mansour, Qasr Ouled Ayyash (a major exchange point for wool and sheep in return for dates used as camel fodder, and a water replenishment site), Qasba , f inally arriving at Timimoun, where the caravan split into various sub-groups to conduct trade across the region, the process unfolds as follows:

• •       Members of the caravan from the Drarga, Ouled Maala, Ouled Serour, and Akrama head to the

Kasr (village) of Timi.

• •       The Ouled Ziyad Sharqa go to Tsabit and Al-Matrafah.

• •       The Ouled Ziyad Gharaba and the Arabawat head to the Kasr of Bouda.³⁹

• •       The Ouled Abdel Karim and Ouled Sidi Ahmed Ben Al-Majdoub go to the Kasr of Ouled Saïd.⁴⁰

The rest of the caravan residing in Timimoun heads toward Touat following the routes below:

• •       From Timimoun to Belgazi – 40 km

• •       From Belgazi to Deldoul – 40 km

• •       From Deldoul to Rabah – 35 km

• •       From Rabah to Sebaa – 50 km

• •       From Sebaa to Timi – 50 km

Section B: Major Commercial Operations

B – Major Commercial Operations:

Regarding the details of commercial transactions, the following table outlines the materials transported by the Trafi caravan to Gourara.41

Materials	Money	Pepper	Meat	Fat	Cheese	Butter	Wool	Wheat	Sheep	Monetary Value
Quantities	5,500f	20	95	46	80	99	499	171	703
Unit Prices (F)	=	90	85	40	80	60	70	100	22
Value in Francs	5,500	1,800	8,075	1840	6,400	5,940	34,930	17,100	15,466	97,051

As for the goods acquired from Gourara by the Trafi caravan, they are summarized in the table below:

Item	Quantity	Price in Géryville (F)	Value in Francs
Tenchoud	93	90	8,370
Hamira	821	70	57,470
Tinnasser	711	60	42,660
Tinjal	853	60	51,180
Dekla	66	50	3,300
Mixed Dates	57	60	3,420
Ghrara Baskets	54	50	2,700
Baskets	82	10	820
Spice Baskets	376	5	1,880
Camels	353	5	1,765
Nets	839	0.25	208.25

Baskets	81	0.25	20.28
Plates	446	0.25	1,450
Sedaris	868	0.50	434
Haïk	10	1.50	15
Tobacco Leaves	80	12.50	964
Total Value			178,176.65

The caravan's profit was estimated at 7,632.55 francs.

Its reception was favorable, and no incidents occurred during its entire stay.

Trade Exchange Bases in both Gourara and Touat were as follows:

• •        3 Ghraras ⁴³ from Tigaza in exchange for butter

• •        20 fleece pieces (toisons) for one load of dates

• •        98 plates or 75 baskets exchanged for 4 handfuls of soft wheat flour

• •        Camel belt for a quantity of meat

• •       Henna container ⁴⁴ exchanged for a wheat container

• •        3 spice jars for 1 cheese jar

• •        6 containers of fodder dates for 1 container of wheat

• •        10 containers of dates for 1 container of beans

• •       Large ewe for one load of dates

• •       Medium ewe for half a load of dates ⁴⁵

5    – The Amour Caravan: 46

This caravan was administratively affiliated with the Ain Sefra subdivision, consisting of 226 individuals and 841 camels. It gathered at Mechrar El-Tahtani, departed on November 21, 1892, and returned on January 7, 1893.

Its route mirrored that of the Trafi and Hamyan caravans, reaching the ksour of Gourara after a 10-day journey, passing through:

•

Talmin, El-Heyha, Charouine, Daghmessa, Timimoun, Ouakrouat, and Tsabit 47

After concluding its trade, the caravan regrouped on December 26 at Hassi Aïda, north of Ouled Aïssa, to begin the return. At El-Wated, the caravan split up as groups returned to their respective homelands.

Goods transported to Gourara were valued at 28,487 francs, consisting of the same materials as previous caravans. Reported profit: 10,368 francs. 48

6    – The Ouled Sidi Cheikh Charaga Caravan: 49

This caravan included 185 individuals with 735 camels, gathering at Sidi El-Hadj Eddine and departing on December 10, 1892. Return date: February 10, 1893.

The route is divided into two phases:

Phase 1: From the starting point to Karn Esh-Shouf, broken into 12 stages, each separated by 40 km, covered in a day. Notable stations:

• •       Bab El-Ajjaj, El-Mzayer, Oued Rtamiya, El-Hassi El-Mer, Nazah Farraj, Faïjat Umm Essif, Faïjat

El-Hajj Mohamed 50

This section is characterized by scarce water sources and uniform vegetation.

Phase 2: From Tabelkouza to Matârfa in the ksour region of Gourara, passing through:

• •       Oued Ghar, Nakhlat Ennous, Bedriane, Timimoun, Tawriste, Belghazi, Matârfa

Goods transported to Gourara were valued at 31,837 francs, while imported goods from Gourara amounted to 34,378 francs.

The net profit was 541 francs, after deducting 2,000 francs due to the loss of 25 camels. 51

Conclusion:

From the content presented in this report, several multidimensional conclusions can be drawn:

• •       The report constitutes an important document for tracking the movement of Arab caravans in the

Oran sector toward the regions of Gourara and Touat, providing precise information on caravan composition, departure points and dates, as well as details about their return journeys.

• •        Camels were the principal means of transportation between the High Plateaus of the Oran sector

and the Gourara region, with these caravans employing a total of 14,881 camels.

• •       Winter was the most favorable season for caravan movement toward the south, as the southern

climate was more suitable for the tribes’ livestock. These caravans would only return to their original homelands at the onset of spring, when climatic conditions improved and pastures began to regenerate, before preparing for a second movement northward during summer toward the Tellian regions and coastal areas—forming a continuous cycle of life for these tribes.

• •       Among the geographic data provided is a detailed description of routes, including key rest stops,

water sources, and the vegetation available along the way. Although the caravans’ destination was Gourara, they followed different routes, indicating a multiplicity of paths leading to the region.

• •        The report presents valuable information about the ksour (fortified villages) of the Gourara region,

including the number of settlements and the plant and water resources available there.

• •       The commercial data was of particular interest to the report’s compiler, who provided detailed

accounts of goods transported to and from Gourara, as well as the rules governing trade exchanges and the profits generated by caravan owners—likely with the aim of subjecting them to various forms of taxation.

• •       Trade exchanges were primarily conducted via barter, with both parties relying on established

valuation criteria. In total, the value of goods exported to Gourara reached 380,008.50 francs, while the imported goods were valued at 610,654.50 francs, generating net profits of 189,438 francs. The profit distribution by caravan was as follows:

o            Hamyan caravan: 59% o              Trafi caravan: 89% o             Ouled Sidi Cheikh Charaga caravan: 15% o            Amour caravan: 36%

• •       The caravan journeys between northern tribes and Gourara served as a social and economic link

between the two regions.

• •       The colonial administration, by accompanying the caravans, was able to gather detailed

information on the routes leading to Gourara, in preparation for a future invasion of the Touat region and its incorporation into colonial control—justified by accusations that Touat was obstructing trade with Western Sudan.