Unveiling the Nexus: Smuggling as a Pillar of Transnational Organized Crime

RESEARCH ARTICLE Unveiling the Nexus: Smuggling as a Pillar of Transnational Organized Crime Bakhta Bensaid Doctor (PhD) Faculty of Law and Political Science, University of Djillali Liabes, Sidi Bel Abbes Algeria Email id: Doi Serial                  Keywords Transnational Crime, Smuggling-Organized Crime Nexus Model, Migrant Smuggling, Economic Impacts, Security Threats, Policy Recommendations, International Cooperation, Technology in Smuggling

Methodology

This study employs a qualitative comparative analysis, integrating a literature review, legal analysis, and case studies. Eighteen peer-reviewed sources, published post-2000 and selected for their focus on smuggling and organized crime, form the foundation (e.g., Ghoul, 2025; Hamamra et al., 2025). Legal frameworks, such as the Algerian Customs Code (2005) and the UN Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants (United Nations, 2000), are analyzed to compare definitions and enforcement. Case studies (e.g., gold smuggling, migrant smuggling) were chosen for their relevance to North Africa and alignment with referenced data. The methodology synthesizes descriptive and critical approaches, developing the Smuggling-Organized Crime Nexus Model. Limitations include reliance on secondary data and a regional focus, mitigated through rigorous source selection and critical engagement.

• 1:    Conceptual Foundations

This chapter establishes the theoretical and historical context of smuggling and organized crime, introducing the Nexus Model and exploring organized crime’s characteristics.

• 1.1:    Understanding Smuggling

Smuggling, a practice as ancient as trade, fuels organized crime through illicit profits. This section traces its evolution, defines its forms, and proposes a new analytical model.

• 1.1.1:    Historical Context

  Smuggling emerged with customs regulations, thriving in eras of economic disparity. In the Mediterranean, colonial trade restrictions spurred smuggling of tobacco and textiles (Pavleska & Kerr, 2020). Today, globalization and technology enable sophisticated networks, particularly across North Africa’s porous borders (Farzammehr & Moradi, 2024). The UN Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants (United Nations, 2000) underscores smuggling’s role in transnational crime, with migrant smuggling generating billions annually (Friebel et al., 2024).

• 1.1.2:    Defining Smuggling

  Smuggling involves the illegal movement of goods or people to evade duties or prohibitions. The Algerian Customs Code (2005) defines it as “import or export outside customs offices or illegal handling of goods” (Articles 25, 51, 60). The World Customs Organization (WCO, 2018) describes it as a “customs offense evading duties.” Economically, smuggling distorts markets, costing states billions (Ndoricimpa, 2024). Table 1 compares key definitions:

Source	Definition Summary
Algerian Customs Code (2005)	Illegal import/export or handling outside customs.
WCO (2018)	Customs offense evading duties.
UN Protocol (2000)	Procurement of illegal entry for profit.
Friebel et al. (2024)	Migrant smuggling as a transnational crime.

Part One: Smuggling vs. Customs Fraud

Smuggling is a subset of customs fraud, which includes falsified declarations or forged documents (Algerian Customs Code, 2005, Articles 05, 240). Smuggling involves bypassing customs entirely, often using illegal routes (Najafi et al., 2023). For instance, smuggling gold across deserts differs from underreporting goods at checkpoints (Ndoricimpa, 2024). Algerian law imposes stricter penalties for smuggling, reflecting its severity.

Part Two: Comparative Legal Definitions

Legal definitions vary:

•   Moroccan Law : Smuggling as a second-degree customs offense (Moroccan Customs Code, 2008, Article 204).

• •    Tunisian Law : Import/export outside customs or transport violations (Tunisian Customs Code, 2010).

• •    UN Protocol :    Migrant smuggling for financial gain (United Nations, 2000).

Hamamra et al. (2025) critique broad definitions that risk criminalizing vulnerable populations, advocating for humanitarian nuance.

• 1.1.3:    Forms and Stages of Smuggling

Smuggling adapts to regulatory and technological changes.

Part One: Types of Smuggling

Smuggling is classified by elements, severity, and rights violated (Algerian Customs Code, 2005, Article 324):

• •   Elements : Actual (bypassing customs) vs. presumed (e.g., possessing unproven goods).

• •   Severity : Simple (one to five years’ imprisonment) vs. aggravated (two to ten years, e.g., group involvement).

• •    Rights : Tax-related (evading duties) vs. non-tax-related (prohibited goods).

Part Two: Stages of Smuggling. Smuggling operations involve supply, sale, packaging, transport, purchase, distribution, and consumption (Auriol et al., 2023). Advanced methods, such as hidden compartments or encrypted communications, enhance evasion (Mirzaei et al., 2021).

• 1.1.4:    Smuggling-Organized Crime Nexus Model

The Smuggling-Organized Crime Nexus Model integrates three dimensions:

• •    Economic : Smuggling fuels criminal enterprises through revenue (Ndoricimpa, 2024).

• •    Security : Arms and drug smuggling destabilize regions (Tyazhelnikov & Romalis, 2024).

• •   Humanitarian : Migrant smuggling exploits vulnerable populations (Hamamra et al., 2025).

Diagram Description : A Venn diagram with three overlapping circles (Economic, Security, Humanitarian), centered on “Organized Crime,” illustrates smuggling’s multifaceted role. Each circle lists key impacts (e.g., Economic: revenue loss; Security: terrorism financing; Humanitarian: human trafficking). The model critiques siloed approaches, offering a holistic framework for policy analysis (Ghoul, 2025).

• 1.2:    Exploring Organized Crime

Organized crime operates through structured networks for profit and influence.

• 1.2.1:    Defining Organized Crime

  The UN Convention defines an organized criminal group as “three or more persons committing serious crimes for financial benefit” (United Nations, 2000, Article 2). Algeria penalizes “associations of evildoers” (Algerian Penal Code, 1966, Articles 176–177). Shen et al. (2021) highlight organized crime’s resilience in conflict zones.

Part One: Organized vs. International Crime. Organized crime is profit-driven and prosecuted domestically, unlike international crimes under global jurisdiction (Pavleska & Kerr, 2020). Both threaten stability, necessitating cooperation (United Nations, 2000).

Part Two: Critical Perspectives. Adiputra et al. (2024) emphasize organized crime’s adaptability, while Hamamra et al. (2025) warn against over-securitization that harms migrants, informing the Nexus Model.

• 1.2.2:    Forms and Characteristics

Part One: Forms of Organized Crime

• •    Drug Trafficking : Algeria as a cannabis transit hub (Ruoyang & Tianji, 2021).

• •    Migrant Smuggling : Exploits refugees (Friebel et al., 2024).

• •    Terrorism Financing : Smuggling funds extremists (Yen et al., 2021).

• •    Arms Trafficking : Fuels conflicts (Tyazhelnikov & Romalis, 2024).

Part Two: Characteristics

• •    Hierarchy, secrecy, adaptability, transnational reach, and profit motive (Ghoul, 2025; Auriol et al., 2023).

• 2:    Impacts of the Nexus

• 2.1:    Economic Impacts

This chapter critiques the economic, social, and security impacts, drawing on case studies.

Smuggling and organized crime cause:

• •    Revenue Loss : Algeria loses millions to smuggled fuel and gold (Ndoricimpa, 2024).

• •    Market Distortion : Smuggled goods harm legitimate businesses (Farzammehr & Moradi, 2024).

• •    Money Laundering : Destabilizes financial systems (Shen et al., 2021).

• 2.2:    Social Impacts

Case Study : Ndoricimpa (2024) highlights the economic toll of gold smuggling in the UAE-Africa trade, though its focus on trade misreporting limits broader economic analysis.

Social consequences include:

• •    Health Risks : Smuggled drugs increase addiction (Ruoyang & Tianji, 2021).

• •   Exploitation : Migrant smuggling harms vulnerable groups (Hamamra et al., 2025).

• •    Corruption : Erodes trust (Auriol et al., 2023).

• 2.3:    Security Impacts

Case Study : Friebel et al. (2024) detail the social costs of Africa-to-Europe migrant smuggling, though their regional focus limits generalizability.

Security threats include:

• •    Terrorism Financing : Smuggling funds extremists (Yen et al., 2021).

• •    Arms Proliferation : Destabilizes regions (Tyazhelnikov & Romalis, 2024).

• •    Border Insecurity : Challenges sovereignty (Bakker et al., 2020).

Case Study : Farzammehr and Moradi (2024) analyze smuggling clusters in Iran, noting enforcement gaps applicable to North Africa.

• 3:    Smuggling Techniques and Technology

• 3.1:    Traditional Techniques

  Methods include hidden compartments, unguarded routes, and bribery (Najafi et al., 2023; Adiputra et al., 2024).

• 3.2:    Technological Adaptations

  Modern smuggling leverages drones, dark web platforms, and encrypted communications (Mirzaei et al., 2021; Eliaerts et al., 2021). Bretler et al. (2022) note advanced logistics in cocaine smuggling matrices.

This chapter examines smuggling methods and technological evolution.

• 4:    Countermeasures and Cooperation

• 4.1:    Legal Frameworks

  • •    Algerian Law : Strict penalties for smuggling (Algerian Customs Code, 2005).

  • •    International Law : UN Protocol criminalizes migrant smuggling (United Nations, 2000).

  • •    Regional Laws : Morocco and Tunisia target customs offenses (Moroccan Customs Code, 2008; Tunisian

    Customs                                        Code,                                        2010).

• 4.2:    Enforcement Strategies

  • •    Surveillance : Drones and satellites (Bakker et al., 2020).

  • •    Intelligence : Interpol cooperation (Shen et al., 2021).

  • •   Training : Customs capacity-building (WCO, 2018). Alvarez-Villa and Guardado (2020) note enforcement’s

• 4.3:    International Cooperation

  • •    Bilateral Agreements : Algeria-Tunisia collaboration (Farzammehr & Moradi, 2024).

  • •    UN Initiatives : UNODC programs (United Nations, 2000).

  • •    Regional Frameworks : African Union efforts (Pavleska & Kerr, 2020).

This chapter evaluates legal and enforcement strategies.

Farzammehr and Moradi (2024) advocate for harmonized regional laws.

limited impact on historical smuggling routes.

• 5:    Ethical and Human Rights Considerations

• 5.1:    Ethical Dilemmas

This chapter addresses ethical challenges, emphasizing human rights.

Anti-smuggling measures risk:

• •    Migrant Profiling : Criminalizes refugees (Hamamra et al., 2025).

• •    Excessive Force : Harms border communities (Friebel et al., 2024).

• •   Corruption : Undermines enforcement (Auriol et al., 2023).

• 5.2:    Ethical Guidelines

  • •    Refugee Protections : Prioritize humanitarian aid (Hamamra et al., 2025).

  • •   Community Engagement : Involve locals in anti-smuggling efforts (Adiputra et al., 2024).

  • •    Transparency : Ensure accountable enforcement (United Nations, 2000).

Case Example : Mediterranean migrant smuggling operations often detain asylum seekers, violating rights (Hamamra et al., 2025).

Conclusion