Urbanization processes in the indigenous population of the Altai Republic: stages, factors, prospects

Russia is a country with a high level of urbanization. According to the 2010 census, 73 % of the country’s inhabitants live in urban areas. The urban transition (the excess of the urban population over the rural) in Russia as a whole took place in 1958, and in some areas of the European portion it took place in the first third of the 20th century (Gorod…, 2001: 155, 161). At the same time, the process of urbanization in individual regions of the country and among different peoples is not the same. This concerns both the chronology of the beginning of urbanization and the rates and levels it achieved at different stages.

One of the Russian regions where the course of the urbanization process particularly differs from the average Russian standard is the Altai Mountains, which lies within the administrative boundaries of the Altai Republic. The beginning of urbanization here dates back to the 2nd decade of 20th century. Since then, the urban population in the region has steadily increased, but it is still far from the magnitude of the urban transition. For

example, in the period from 1926 to 2010 it increased 10 times (from 5691 to 56,933 people), and the proportion of urban dwellers increased from 5.7 % to 27.6 % (calculated after (Vsesoyuznaya perepis…, 1928: 60–61; Natsionalniy sostav…, 2013: 8)).

Urbanization in the territory of the Altai Mountains has, to a greater or lesser extent, affected all the peoples of the region. Today, the share of city dwellers among Russians is 33.6 %, and among the indigenous population of northern Altai (Kumandins, Tubalars, Chelkans) and southern Altai (Altai-kizhi, Telengits, Teleuts) 18.8 %. At the same time, in terms of urbanization, the Kumandins surpass both the rest of the Altai ethnic groups and the Russians, with 41.4 % (calculated after (Natsionalniy sostav…, 2013: 9, 13, 15, 17)).

The urbanization trends of the individual peoples of the Altai Republic are of great interest from the point of view of studying the patterns and specifics of urbanization processes in the region. However, this problem remains practically unexplored, since the Russian science traditionally pays more attention to the development of the population of large cities. This work contributes to the study of urbanization processes in the Altai Mountains. It is dedicated to the identification of the features and main trends of urbanization among the indigenous population of the region. Notably, our attention will be focused on quantitative indicators (growth of urban settlements and urban population). Qualitative changes (urban lifestyle, culture) will not be not considered here. To achieve this task, it is necessary to study the formation of an urban settlement network in the region, to identify and substantiate the stages of urbanization of the indigenous population, and to identify the main factors that determined the urbanization process.

State of knowledge about the issue, sources

The issue of the urbanization of the indigenous population of the Altai Mountains cannot be considered in isolation from studies relating to the analysis of the urban development of the region. In the works devoted to the classification of Russian regions according to an achieved level of urbanization, the Altai Republic belongs to the group of extremely poorly urbanized regions (Popov, 2005; Efimova, 2014). The problem of urbanization of the population of the Altai Mountains is briefly addressed in the studies concerning the analysis of general trends in urbanization processes in Siberia. For example, the monograph of V.A. Isupov indicates that in the period from 1939 to 1959 the number of city dwellers in the Gorno-Altai Autonomous Oblast, a predominantly agrarian region, grew at a slow pace (1991: 32). In the work of E.E. Tinikova, who reveals the main trends of urbanization in the republics of Altai, Tuva, and Khakassia from 1945 to 2017, it is noted that in Soviet times the Altai Mountains region remained poorly urbanized owing to economic specialization in distant pasture animal husbandry, and in the post-Soviet period the number of city dwellers in the region grew on account of the internal migration of the population (2018: 241, 251). According to the research by A.S. Breslavsky, in 1989–2019, the urbanization processes in the republics of southern Siberia (Altai, Buryatia, Tuva, Khakassia) covered mainly capital cities and their suburban areas, and relied on intraregional migration (2019).

The analysis of urbanization of the indigenous population of the Altai Mountains is presented only in a few works. Among them, a collective monograph devoted to the problem of the development of the Western Siberia population stands out. It contains data on the dynamics of the number of urban Altai citizens in 1939–1989. It is noted that “the Altai population, albeit small in size, was drawn into the process of urbanization” and “at the same time, the change in the proportion of the urban population was gradual and smooth” (Naseleniye…, 1997: 159–160). In the work of A.A. Cherkasov, devoted to the typology of Russian ethnic groups by level of urbanization, the Altai peoples are attributed to the fourth type—with a failed urban transition (2018). The publication by Tinikova analyzes the ethnic composition of the urban population of southern Siberia in 1945– 2017. Tinikova notes that the urbanization of the Altai people began much later than that of the East Slavs. As a result, the Altai people remain a weakly urbanized ethnic group, in which the proportion of city dwellers has not attained 50 % (Tinikova, 2019). Noteworthy is the study by V.V. Nikolaev, which describes ethno-demographic processes in the Altai in 2002–2010. The author notes that the level of urbanization and the history of the formation of urban groups of the indigenous population differ significantly. The most urbanized people of the Altai are the Kumandins (Nikolaev, 2017).

As one can see, the issue of urbanization of the population of Altai Republic, including the indigenous population, did not receive comprehensive coverage in the scientific literature. There are no generalizing studies among the works considered. Existing publications do not cover many aspects of urbanization: the influence of the state on this process, the development of the urban network, the reasons for the resettlement of rural residents into the cities, etc.

The source base of this work was the materials of six USSR population censuses (1926, 1939, 1959, 1970, 1979, 1989) and two Russian Federation population censuses (2002, 2010), characterizing the quantitative parameters of urbanization in the Altai.

Formation of urban settlements in the Altai Republic

The history of the first (and so far the only) city in the Altai Republic dates back to the beginning of the 19th century. On the site of modern Gorno-Altaysk, there was a small Altai settlement, Ulala (Altaian, ‘Ulalu’). Over time, Russian settlers began to move to the village, followed by Orthodox missionaries. In 1830, in Ulala, the main camp of the Altai spiritual mission was founded (Ulala…, 1997: 16–18, 130). At first, the population of Ulala grew rather slowly, since not everyone who desired to could live here: only newly baptized Altaians and Russian settlers who received permission from the head of the mission. This state of affairs changed after the abolition of serfdom in 1861 and the adoption of the 1865 law that allowed the peasants of the central provinces to settle on the lands of the Altai Mountains region. Ulala’s advantageous position led to an influx of peasant, handicraft, and commercial immigrants here (Satlaev, 1995: 121; Ulala…, 1997: 20, 24). By the end of the 19th century, the settlement was a regional center of the Altai Mountains, performing commercial, economic, cultural, religious, and educational functions.

In June 1922, Ulala became the administrative center of the new Oyrot Autonomous Oblast (later, the Gorno-AltaiAutonomous Oblast; now, theAltai Republic), and on February 27, 1928, it received the status of city. In the next two decades, the city changed its name twice: on July 4, 1932, it was renamed Oyrot-Tura, and on January 7, 1948, Gorno-Altaysk (Ulala…, 1997: 133–134, 138). The transformation of Ulala into a city marked the beginning of urbanization processes in the Altai Republic. Over time, several more urban-type settlements appeared in the region. In 1957, the village of Aktash, and in 1966, the village of Veselaya Seika received the status of workers’ settlements. Then, in 1970, the village of Chemal received the status of resort settlement (Gorno-Altayskoy avtonomnoy oblasti 60 let, 1982: 3). The transformation of villages into workers’ settlements was associated with the industrial development of the territories of the Altai Mountains. During the World War II, in the vicinity of the village of Aktash, the cinnabar deposit began to be developed. Later, a metallurgical plant was built here for the extraction and processing of mercury ore. In the early 1950s, near Veselaya Seika, gold mining began to develop, and a gold recovery plant was built. The development of the mines led to an influx of qualified specialists and skilled workers, an increase in the population, and a change in the face of both settlements through extensive housing construction and the development of rural infrastructure. The transformation of Chemal into a resort settlement was associated with the establishment of an antituberculosis sanatorium on its territory.

In different years, from 1700 to 3600 people lived in each of the settlements under consideration (Gorniy Altai, 1990: 9–10). The resort settlement of Chemal remained in its new status until 1988, and the workers’ settlements of Aktash and Veselaya Seika upheld until 1994. Then, they were again transformed into rural settlements. Therefore, the population of Aktash was considered an urban one during the All-Union (USSR) censuses of 1959, 1970, 1979, and 1989; Veselaya Seika of 1970, 1979, and 1989, and Chemal only of 1979.

Main stages and outcomes of the urbanization of indigenous population of the Altai Republic

A clear idea of the scale of urbanization of the indigenous population of the Altai Republic is provided by the materials of the censuses of 1926–2010, which make it possible to analyze the growth in the number and proportion of the urban population. Notably, ethnic groups of the northern and southern indigenous inhabitants of the Altai in some censuses were counted as a single people, in others as separate ones. In this paper, they are considered in their totality. Let us turn to the census materials (see Table ).

Analysis of the data presented in the table makes it possible to distinguish three stages in the urbanization of the indigenous population of the Altai Mountains: 1926–1950, 1960–1980, and from 1990 to the present. The main criteria for their identification were trends in the changing number of citizens (growth or decline) and the factors determining these trends. The initial stage (1926–1950s) was very complex and contradictory in its content: the growth in the number of citizens and the level of urbanization was extremely uneven. In this regard, two periods can be distinguished: 1926–1930s and 1940–1950s.

In the first period (1926–1930s), an urban group emerged as part of the indigenous population of the Altai Mountains. Although at the time of the 1926 census, Ulala was not yet a city; nevertheless, in the results of the census published two years later, Ulala residents were already counted as city dwellers. Among them, there were 969 representatives of the indigenous population, which was 2.3 % of its total number. By 1939, the number of Altaians in Ulala increased 2.9 times, and the level of urbanization rose to 7.1 %. The increase in the number of city dwellers was mainly due to the migration of the population from rural areas.

The active growth in the number of Altaians in Ulala fell in the years of the first “five-year plans”, when the country embarked on a course of forced industrialization and the demand for workers in the cities increased significantly. During these years, Ulala also developed

Dynamics of the number of the indigenous population of the Altai Republic in the 20th–21st centuries (according to population censuses)*

Year	Total	Urban		Rural
		Number	%	Number	%
1926	42,278	969	2.3	41,309	97.7
1939	39,285	2807	7.1	36,478	92.9
1959	38,019	2379	6.2	35,640	93.8
1970	46,750	3610	7.7	43,140	92.3
1979	50,203	4700	9.4	45,503	90.6
1989	59,130	6215	10.5	52,915	89.5
2002	67,886	10,947	16.1	56,939	83.9
2010	69,913	13,154	18.8	56,759	81.2

*Calculated according to: (Vsesoyuznaya perepis…, 1928: 60–62; 1992: 59; Itogi Vsesoyuznoy perepisi naseleniya 1959 goda…, (s.a.): Fol. 110, 113–116; Itogi Vsesoyuznoy perepisi naseleniya 1970 goda…, (s.a.): 89–91; Chislennost…, 1984: 84; Natsionalniy sostav…, 2005: 13–14; 2013: 9, 13, 17; Respublika Altai…, (s.a.): 59).

intensively. The number of industrial enterprises that produced mainly consumer goods (bread-baking complex, meat-packing plant, brick factory, etc.) grew rapidly in the city. At the same time, changes in the organization of the production process took place: small handicraft enterprises were replaced by large-scale state and cooperative ones, with partial replacement of manual labor by machine technology (Baeva, Makoshev, 1994: 73–74). Along with this, the network of educational and cultural institutions expanded in Ulala. In addition to new schools and a cinema, a veterinary school, a workers’ school, a medical school, a pedagogical school were opened there (Ulala…, 1997: 93). Undoubtedly, Ulala attracted rural dwellers with opportunities for employment in new enterprises and obtaining vocational education. However, the massive migration of the indigenous population to the city was only to a small extent due to the process of industrialization of the country. The Altaians, who had been engaged in agricultural labor for centuries, could not rapidly reorient themselves to non-traditional types of occupation.

Analysis of the data in the table shows that the increase in the number of city dwellers in the 1926–1939 period took place along with a decrease in the number of both the rural and the whole indigenous population of the region. The main reasons for this demographic decline were not structural, but political factors: primarily, the implementation of a policy of complete collectivization in the countryside. In the Altai Mountains, as early as March of 1930, peasants were almost without exception driven into “communes” and stripped of all belongings (Naseleniye…, 1997: 24). Forced collectivization was accompanied by dispossession and repressions, devastation and hunger. In this regard, for many Altai people, moving from a village to a city was a forced measure, an escape from the discriminatory policy of the state. It should be noted that this situation was observed in the 1930s throughout the country (Kessler, 2003: 77; Nefedov, 2013: 48). Collectivization, the transformation of peasants into donors at whose expense the forced industrialization was ensured, contributed to the migration activity of rural residents. Mass migration of the population from villages to cities was stopped only by the tough measures of the Soviet leadership (deprivation of rural residents of passports; registration system; a ban on leaving collective farm production without special permission from the administration; criminal prosecution of those living in cities without registration and passports) (Naseleniye…, 1997: 27).

In the second period (1940–1950s), the urbanization development of the indigenous population of the Altai Mountains underwent negative changes. Since the beginning of the 1940s, there appeared the tendency of situational deurbanization, which persisted up to the end of the 1950s. By 1959, the number of the urban Altai population decreased to 2379 people, the share of urban residents among the Altaians decreased to 6.2 %. This was due to a number of social factors. With the adoption of the aforementioned restrictive measures aimed at reducing migration from villages to cities, the inflow of the rural population to Gorno-Altaysk (former Ulala) has significantly decreased. Most of the collective farmers could not leave their homes, since it was difficult to get a certificate to leave for work in the city from the collective farm board. Living in the city without a passport and registration entailed the imposition of a fine and expulsion by the police back to the village. Another significant factor was the World War II. It disrupted the regular reproduction processes among the entire indigenous population of the Altai Mountains. The misbalance of the sex/age population structure, caused by mass conscription of men into the army and their death during the hostilities, led to a decrease in the birth rate and natural population growth. The consequences of the demographic catastrophe of the war years were felt for a long time. Therefore, even by the end of the 1950s, the number of the indigenous population of the Altai Republic did not reach the pre-war level.

Notably, the transformation of village Aktash into an urban-type settlement in 1957 had little effect on the dynamics of the number of city dwellers among the Altai natives. Our calculations based on the results of the 1959 census show that in Aktash, where 2300 people lived, representatives of the indigenous population were in the minority—161 people (calculated after (Gorno-Altaysk…, 2013: 20; Gorniy Altai…, 1990: 10)).

During the period under review, despite the war and the difficulties of the post-war period, Gorno-Altaysk continued to develop. A number of important socioeconomic projects were implemented in the city, which further contributed to the increase of its role in the life of the region and the growth of the urban population. For example, in Gorno-Altaysk, a sewing (1941), curtaintulle (1954), weaving (1956) and shoe (1958) factories were established; works were carried out on housing construction and improvement of the city (Ulala…, 1997: 137; Pakhaev, Fedotov, Yablochkov, 1965: 35, 44–48). Qualitative changes have also taken place in the field of education. In 1949, the Gorno-Altaysk Teachers’ Institute was founded (in 1952, it was transformed into a Pedagogical Institute; in 1993, into the Gorno-Altaysk State University) (Ulala…, 1997: 138). In the same year, the Regional National Secondary School was created, designed to train qualified personnel from the indigenous population. For students who came from all over the Altai Mountains, a boarding school was opened at the school (Istoriya gimnazii, (s.a.)). This school, unique for the region, has been operating to this day (now, the Republican gymnasium of Plakas), and continues to fulfill its mission. Undoubtedly, the opening of the pedagogical institute and the secondary school contributed to the movement of Altai youth to the city and their assimilation into urban society.

At the second stage (1960–1980s) of the urbanization development of the indigenous population of the Altai Republic, a progressive growth of the urban group was observed. From 1959 (2379 people) to 1989 (6215 people), its number increased 2.6 times, and the level of urbanization increased to 10.5 % (see Table ). The growth of the urban population at this stage was accompanied by an increase in the number of the entire indigenous population of the region. Nevertheless, in these years, a trend towards a decrease in the share of rural residents among the Altai people was already clear.

The main source of replenishment of the urban Altai population was migration from the villages. The main flow of rural residents was directed to Gorno-Altaysk. Urban- type settlements did not have migration attractiveness; hence population size grew slowly there. According to our calculations based on the results of the censuses, the number of Altai natives in urban-type settlements in 1970 was 301 people (Aktash, Veselaya Seika); in 1979, 828 (Aktash, Veselaya Seika, Chemal); and in 1989, 709 people (Aktash, Veselaya Seika) (calculated after (Gorno-Altaysk…, 2013: 20–21)).

At the stage under consideration, the migration of the rural Altai population to Gorno-Altaysk was driven by a number of closely interrelated factors. Of these, primarily, sociocultural factors should be noted. The city attracted villagers with a higher standard of living. In the capital of the region, the quality of health care, housing conditions, and cultural services were significantly higher than in the countryside. In addition, Gorno-Altaysk, being a scientific and educational center, attracted rural youth with opportunities for education and professional fulfillment.

Economic factors also became important reasons for the migration of the indigenous population to the city: a higher level of income and a variety of jobs (industry, capital construction, transport, communications, etc.). The development of industry in Gorno-Altaysk contributed to the gradual involvement of the urban Altai population in industrial labor. Some of the women, after moving to the city, were employed at a weaving, curtain-tulle, and sewing factories. Men worked at shoe and furniture factories, brick factories, reinforced concrete products, and electrical appliances.

Political factors also played a significant role in the migration growth of the urban group of the indigenous population. In the 1960–1970s, the state policy of systematic enlargement of the existing system of rural settlements and the elimination of “unpromising” small villages was implemented in the country. As a result, approximately 90 settlements, or ¼ part of all settlements, disappeared in the Altai Mountains region (Baeva, Makoshev, 1994: 13). As a result of the elimination of “unpromising” villages, those rural residents who had not been disposed to change their place of residence before were involved in forced migration. Most of them moved to larger villages and regional centers. However, part of the villagers, bypassing the “promising” villages, rushed irectly to Gorno-Altaysk.

Notably, among the indigenous population, the Kumandins showed the greatest migration activity. Many of them moved to Gorno-Altaysk and Biysk, as well as large settlements in the nearby Tashtagolsky District of the Kemerovo Region. The Kumandins migrated to Gorno-Altaysk not only from the villages of the Altai Republic, but also from Krasnogorsky and Soltonsky districts of the neighboring Altai Territory. As a result, they became the most urbanized ethnic group in the region.

The third stage (from 1990 to the present) of the urbanization development of the indigenous population of the Altai Republic is characterized by the continued growth of the urban group. The table shows the growth in both absolute and percentage terms. During the period from 1989 to 2010, the number of city dwellers increased by a factor of 2.1, and the level of urbanization by 8.3 %. On the contrary, the proportion of the rural Altai population continues to decline. Moreover, in the period of 2002–2010, for the first time in the past 50 years, a decrease in its absolute number, albeit insignificant, was recorded.

In the post-Soviet period, the number of urban dwellers among the indigenous population continued to grow owing to intraregional rural-urban migration. However, the reasons for the migration activity of villagers have changed a lot. One important reason became the economic factor, namely the severe socioeconomic crisis of the 1990s. The Altai Republic, being an agricultural region, turned out to be especially vulnerable to market reforms. The elimination of the administrative system of the command economy, as well as the privatization of property, led to economic destabilization in the region, the collapse of collective farms, unemployment, and a drop in the population’s income. Gorno-Altaysk, which at that time became the only urban settlement in the region, also found itself in a difficult economic situation. Almost all large industrial enterprises in the city were gradually closed. In these market conditions, only the concrete product plant survived. However, despite all the economic difficulties, the level and quality of life of the population in Gorno-Altaysk remained higher than in the countryside. As a result, the capital of the region continued to attract rural residents. Representatives of the indigenous population migrated from village to city, realizing that here they have more chances to find a job (including in the informal sector), engage in commercial activities, have a stable income, and provide their family with an acceptable standard of living. In addition to economic reasons, an important motive for their move to Gorno-Altaysk was the desire to give their children a good education—not only special or higher, but also secondary.

Rural residents who moved to the city were not always able to adapt to new forms of life. Owing to the inability to find work and the high prices for food and housing, some of them returned to the village. At the same time, adapting to modern realities, many rural households began to intensify their activities in subsidiary farming. As a result, families often got separated during the children’s study time: the mother and children lived in the city, while the father was engaged in animal husbandry in the village.

In some cases, the migration flow went from town to village. For example, in 1992, the Kosh-Agachsky and Ulaganky districts were assigned to the regions of the Far North, which led to an increase in wages

(“northern” allowances) for the working residents. This became a financial incentive for attracting and retaining specialists, including those from the city, in rural budgetary institutions of these districts. Nevertheless, the migration of the Altai population from the Kosh-Agachsky and Ulagansky districts to Gorno-Altaysk did not stop, and continues to this day. This is largely facilitated by the implementation (since the early 2000s) of the federal program for the resettlement of citizens from the regions of the Far North and equivalent areas. Under this program, certain categories of residents are eligible for subsidies for the purchase of housing. By the beginning of 2020, more than four thousand such citizens were registered (Obespecheniye zhilyem…, (s.a.)). In different years, the total number of recipients of housing certificates can vary greatly—from 35 to 200 people. In most cases, they try to buy housing in Gorno-Altaysk.

Today, Gorno-Altaysk, as a regional capital, continues to accumulate rural population. At the same time, it develops more and more in an agglomerative form, and pulls into its orbit the nearby villages of Alferovo, Kyzyl-Ozek, Maima, Karlushka, Dubrovka. Many residents of these settlements are involved in commuting. Every day, they travel to the capital to work or study, and back. In connection with the current situation, the Government of the Altai Republic has announced the future adoption of a decision to create the Gorno-Altaysk urban agglomeration (Sozdaniye i razvitiye…, (s.a.)). In recent years, more and more inhabitants of the Altai have been settling in the suburban area of the capital. Therefore, it can be predicted that the next vector of urbanization development of the indigenous population will be its concentration within the urban agglomeration.

Another important trend will be the increase in the number of Altai natives in cities outside the region. This is due to the fact that students studying in such cities are increasingly striving to remain there after graduation. In addition, in the post-Soviet period, in the Altai Republic, seasonal migrant labor became widespread. Inhabitants of the region travel for work to large cities, as well as urban and rural settlements, in the North and the Far East. Over time, some of the migrant workers decide to settle at their place of work, and move their families.

Conclusions

At the present stage, the Altai Republic is a poorly urbanized region. Initially, there were no preconditions for its rapid urbanization development. Alpine terrain, difficult accessibility to transportation, and an economy centered on animal husbandry did not contribute to the emergence of large industrial centers in the Altai Mountains. The first, and to this day the only, city in the region, Gorno-Altaysk, emerged and is developing as an administrative, scientific, educational, and cultural center. None of the three urban-type settlements that appeared in the region during the Soviet period became centers of urbanization. All of them were eventually transformed into rural settlements.

In the last century, the quantity of the urban group of the indigenous population of the Altai Republic has been gradually increasing, but has not yet reached the level of urban transition. Urbanization is proceeding in an extensive way, on accounts of rural migration. It is closely interconnected with social, economic, and political processes in the country.

The proportion of the urban population as part of the indigenous population of the Altai Mountains region will increase in the future. This is due to the fact that the reserves of extensive development have not yet been exhausted. The most attractive city to move to will remain the capital of the region and its suburban area. At the same time, unequal wages in various regions will contribute to increased migration of the indigenous population to the “rich” cities outside the republic.

The logic of the development of urbanization processes in the world suggests that in the future the role of intensive factors of urbanization of the indigenous population of the Altai Republic will significantly increase. The quantitative growth of the urban Altai population will be accompanied by the changes in its qualitative characteristics: increase in the educational level, differentiation of the social and professional structure, assimilation of the standards of urban culture, system of values, and norms of behavior. Furthermore, urban lifestyles will increasingly spread to rural areas.

Undoubtedly, the transition to the intensive stage depends on the solution of the social problems of the regional capital, associated with the increase in the level and quality of life of the population, the development of the cultural and educational sphere, the formation of a comfortable urban environment, the expansion of housing construction, etc. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that urbanization will continue, and in this regard, the indigenous population of the Altai Republic is moving in the same direction with the rest of the world.