Viajando por los “Caminos del sur”: El budismo esotérico en el Asia marítima, siglos VII-XIII d. C.

Автор: Andrea Acri

Журнал: Revista Científica Arbitrada de la Fundación MenteClara @fundacionmenteclara

Статья в выпуске: 2, Vol. 2, 2017 года.

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Este artículo presenta un panorama histórico de las redes de sitios y agentes que fueron instrumentales en la creación y circulación de las diferentes variedades de budismo esotérico (o tántrico) entre los siglos VII y XIII hasta su casi desaparición. El autor aborda el estudio del budismo esotérico desde una perspectiva geográfica amplia, hace hincapié en las interacciones marítimas que se produjeron a través de las llamadas «Rutas Marítimas de la Seda» en el curso de varios siglos y avanza en una narrativa histórica complementaria que toma las conexiones marítimas. Basado en evidencias textuales, materiales y arqueológicas diseminadas en toda el Asia marítima, muestra cómo migraron los maestros budistas tántricos de la «primera ola» a distintos puntos del Asia, donde evolucionaba y se consolidaba el nuevo paradigma tántrico gracias al patrocinio de dinastías como las de los Śailendras, Yarlung y Tang. Durante la expansión de la «segunda ola», los cultos tántricos que giraban en torno a aspectos sumamente esotéricos y militares de las deidades (como Heruka y Hevajra) tuvieron como seguidores al Kublai Kan en la China, a Kṛtanagara en Java oriental y a Jayavarman VII en Camboya, entre otros, hasta su posterior desaparición. El trabajo sostiene que aparte de las contingencias sociopolíticas, tales cambios de paradigma pueden haber ocurrido como resultado de «reformas» religiosas que promovieron un giro hacia las variedades no esotéricas -es decir, variantes mágicomísticas- de las tradiciones budistas (como sucedió, por ejemplo, en Sri Lanka y, en una fecha posterior, en Myanmar y Camboya con respecto a la prevalencia del budismo Therāvada sobre el Mahāyāna y Vajrayāna o incluso diferentes religiones como sucedió, por ejemplo, en Java Central). Finalmente el artículo sienta las bases para continuar los estudios académicos para identificar las redes de practicantes no institucionalizados que contribuyeron a la difusión de las formas del tantrismo en el Asia marítima.

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Tantra, tantrism, Buddhism, esoteric buddhism, tantrics, tantric studies, tantric paradigm, Southeast Asian Studies, Silk Road Studies, Tibetan Buddhism, Indian Ocean World

Короткий адрес: https://sciup.org/170163620

IDR: 170163620 | DOI: 10.32351/rca.v2.2.28

Фрагмент статьи Viajando por los “Caminos del sur”: El budismo esotérico en el Asia marítima, siglos VII-XIII d. C.

Introducción

En la época medieval, las ciudades estados de la costa y del interior, extendidas sobre una región geográfica amplia aquí llamada «Asia marítima», fueron conectadas por una red entre las ciudades puertos que conectan al Océano Índico, al Pacífico occidental y al mar de China meridional.

Esas localidades cosmopolitas actuaron no solo como encrucijada del poder político y del espíritu emprendedor mercantil, sino también como centros de aprendizaje, culto y peregrinación, donde las tradiciones institucionalizadas del hinduismo y del budismo coexistieron lado a lado.

Desde principios del siglo VII, los monjes que se adhirieron a los maṇḍala y las modas esotéricas centradas en el ritual dentro de la corriente Mahāyāna viajaban por las rutas marítimas, convirtiéndose en los vectores para la circulación de textos esotéricos, rituales e iconos.

Este estudio presenta un panorama histórico de las redes de sitios y agentes que fueron instrumentales en la creación y circulación de las diferentes variedades de budismo esotérico.

Un creciente reconocimiento del importante papel que desempeñaron las rutas marítimas -las denominadas «Rutas marítimas de la Seda»- en la configuración de la conectividad premoderna intraasiática, impulsa el estudio del budismo esotérico desde una perspectiva geográfica amplia, haciendo hincapié en las interacciones marítimas que se produjeron a través de los límites geográficos y culturales en el curso de varios siglos. Estableciendo así el constitutivo e importante papel desempeñado por el «sur» del litoral y las regiones insulares -y especialmente el sudeste de Asia- en la génesis y propagación del budismo tántrico -esotérico- a través de Asia.

Esta perspectiva revela los límites que tiene una historiografía que se basa exclusivamente en las «vías septentrionales» terrestres de transmisión de las variedades esotéricas del budismo a través del continente eurasiático, y avanza en una narrativa histórica complementaria que toma las «vías del sur», es decir: Las conexiones basadas en el mar.

1 Imaginería del budismo esotérico en la región marítima medieval de Asia

El Asia marítima puede ser conceptualizada como una agrupación socioespacial o región del mundo (Lewis y Wigen, 1997) constituida por un patrón de relaciones siempre cambiantes dominadas por afinidades básicas subyacentes.

En el período medieval, esta región comprendía una red de estados costeros e interiores, conectados entre sí a través de una red de ciudades portuarias cosmopolitas a través de la Bahía de Bengala / Océano Índico y el Mar de China Meridional / Océano Pacífico Occidental, formando un único océano (Wolters, 1999) o, más bien, un «Mediterráneo de dos océanos» (Wang, 2015).

Habiendo sido el teatro de la circulación de personas, mercancías, idiomas e ideas, a través de las rutas marítimas durante milenios, el Asia marítima puede ser teorizada como la formación -como Eurasia- de una red interconectada con un fondo común de historia humana, intelectual y ambiental.

Como lo demuestran los materiales históricos, epigráficos y de arte histórico, los cultos budistas esotéricos, las imaginerías y las tecnologías rituales, florecieron en el Asia marítima desde principios del siglo VII. Accesorios Vajra, iconos de deidades esotéricas y dhāraṇīs basados en textos esotéricos del sánscrito budista, se han recuperado a través de una vasta extensión de territorio litoral e insular del sur de Asia.

Las evidencias encontradas en Sri Lanka, las Maldivas, el archipiélago indonesio y las Filipinas, muestran la existencia de un tráfico multidireccional entre los centros del sur, sudeste y este de Asia, que actúaron como nodos interconectados que contribuyeron a la génesis y la circulación del budismo esotérico.

Aunque el aura religiosa y el prestigio político de los centros del budismo del sur de Asia siguieron siendo fuertes a través del período medieval, las regiones exteriores de la cosmópolis budista trataron de vincularse a estos centros, convirtiéndose así en centros con respecto a las nuevas «periferias» creando a medida que las redes se movían y las fronteras budistas se extendían lo que Sen (2014b) ha descrito como la aparición de «múltiples centros del discurso budista».

1.1 Asia meridional

El subcontinente Indio acogió lo que puede considerarse varias «cunas» del budismo esotérico. Esas localidades se encontraban a lo largo de los litorales occidentales y orientales de la India y en sus territorios interiores, especialmente el Deccan occidental, el área de Gran Bengala, Andhra Pradesh y Odisha, Tamil Nadu y la isla de Sri Lanka.

1.1.1 La India occidental

Los vestigios budistas esotéricos más tempranos e importantes se encuentran en la India occidental, como se pone de manifiesto, por ejemplo, por imágenes de las cuevas budistas de finales del siglo VI y principios del siglo VII en el Deccan occidental, como Ellorā. (Malandra, 1996), Aurangabad (Brancaccio, 2010) y Kānherī, donde Tārās y Avalokiteśvaras -esotéricos- se encuentran ya en los siglos VI-VII (Pandit, 2015) (Bopearachchi, 2014).

Esos primeros sitios, donde los Ocho Grandes Bodhisattvas (aṣṭamahābodhisattvas) del Mahāyāna desarrollado ocupan una posición prominente en la iconografía, muestran el naciente pensamiento e imágenes tántricas budistas (Malandra, 1996) (Linrothe, 1999). De acuerdo con Wayman y Tajima (1992), un tantra budista temprano y seminal tal como el Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi pudo haber sido compuesto a mediados del siglo VI en Maharashtra.

La circulación de los iconos budistas -y textos- entre los sitios de la India oriental y los sitios del sudeste asiático puede ser la hipótesis sobre la base de alineaciones iconográficas y desarrollos doctrinales.

La costa de Konkan parece haber sido un bastión del budismo esotérico en el siglo XI. El conocido manuscrito nepalés ilustrado del Aṣṭasāhasrikā-Prajñāpāramitā de 1015 d. C. -CUL Ms. Add. 1643, citado por (Mitra, 1971)- que presenta una documentación visual de divinidades y centros reconocidos a través del Asia budista, menciona Mahāviśva -¿una corrupción de Mahābimba?- como la sede de un famoso Lokanātha (Szántó, 2016), y enlaza un número significativo de otros sitios budistas con Koṅkana (Kim, 2014).

El colofón del siglo IX de Cakrasaṃvarapañjikā (Sugiki, 2001) del Jayabhadra cingalés -que posteriormente se convirtió en vajrācārya en Vikramaśīla- registra su presencia en esa región y menciona un monasterio budista que alberga una famosa caitya -templo budista funerario- y un templo de Tārā en Mahābimba. Tāranātha reporta la misma información (Chattopadhyaya, 1980).

1.1.2 Noreste de la India

Se reconoce generalmente que los principales centros del budismo esotérico -y del tantrismo en general- se encontraron en las regiones del noreste del subcontinente indio, que corresponde aproximadamente al Bihar moderno -que es la cuna del budismo desde la época del Buda-, Bengala Occidental y Bangladesh.

Bihar fue el asiento de prestigiosas instituciones de enseñanza budista como Nālandā, Vikramaśīla, Somapura y Uddaṇḍapura -Otantapurī-, donde las modas esotéricas parecen haberse popularizado desde finales del siglo VIII hasta el siglo XII (Saran, 1981) (Tanaka, 2008) (Sanderson, 2009) (Decleer n/p).

Toda la región nororiental acogió a los principales maestros del budismo Mantranaya y Vajrayāna y se cree que varias obras tántricas se originaron desde allí.

Nālandā constituyó el nexo -real o imaginario- que enlazó muchos de los agentes primarios de la «primera ola» del budismo esotérico en el siglo VIII y en el siglo IX se convirtió en «el centro de una nueva red tántrica en Asia» (Hall, 2010).

Conectados a la ciudad portuaria de Pāla de Tāmralipti, Nālandā -y los otros centros budistas en la región noreste- eran fácilmente accesibles a través de las rutas marítimas que conectaban el litoral de la Bahía de Bengala, el sudeste de Asia y China.

Fue en Nālandā que Śubhākarasiṁha, Vajrabodhi y Prajña fueron instruidos y recibieron su ordenación antes de emprender la carrera de maestros viajeros. Aparte de ser un ilustre centro de aprendizaje budista, Nālandā fue también la potencia cultural que dictó el paradigma religioso y estético predominante en la cosmópolis budista del siglo VIII al siglo XIII.

Esto también es sugerido por el uso de Siddhamātṛkā -una variedad de escritura del norte-este-indio, en uso en Nālandā- en tierras extranjeras, a saber, en corpus textuales budistas esotéricos extensos de China y Japón, así como inscripciones budistas esotéricas de Sri Lanka, el archipiélago indonesio y la península malaya.

El nombre evocador de Nālandā resonó en el sudeste asiático: el rey sumatra Bālaputradeva, que aparentemente estuvo involucrado en la lucha dinástica que tuvo lugar en Java Central a mediados del siglo IX, es mencionado en una inscripción publicada por Devapāla en Nālandā, que registra su patrocinio de un vihāra para el uso de los peregrinos de Śrīvijaya.

Además, existen vínculos bien conocidos entre los maestros de los dominios Pāla y el budismo patrocinado por Śailendra en Java.

Piensen en Kumāraghoṣa, el preceptor real de Gauḍīdvīpa, que instaló una imagen de Mañjughoṣa (Mañjuśrī) a petición del rey Śailendra Śrī Saṅgrāmadhanañjaya (Sarkar, 1971), y el golapaṇḍitā / gauḍapaṇḍitā que figura en la inscripción sin fecha de Pasir Panjang en Karimun Besar en el archipiélago de Riau, que podría haber sido grabada por un monje de Bengala continental, Sumatra o Java (Caldwell y Hazlewood, 1994).

En dos inscripciones balinesas del siglo X relacionadas con el preceptor budista -upādhyāya- Dhanavan (Ardika, 2015) (Goris, 1954) se menciona una localidad llamada Nālandā (nalәnda, nalanda), junto con Vārāṇasī.

Como señala Ardika (Op. Cit.), esas inscripciones balinesas indican que los topónimos asociados con centros prestigiosos del budismo en el subcontinente fueron trasladados a lugares locales.

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