Archaeozoological studies at Konoplyanka, the Southern Trans-Urals

The Konoplyanka site is one of 22 settlements of the Sintashta culture discovered in the Southern TransUrals (Soldatkin, 2018: 210). Many aspects of herding by the population of this culture have been thoroughly studied in recent years (Kosintsev, 2000; Kosintsev, Gasilin, 2009; Kosintsev, Bachura, 2013; Rassadnikov, Kosintsev, Koryakova, 2013). But a number of other issues have not so far been the focus of archaeozoological research, including the analysis of pathological markers, reconstruction of the type of herding, and the radius of the economic (herding) zone of settlements.

This study sets out to reconstruct the pastoral economy at Konoplyanka, employing archaeozoological material from the site (excavations of 2012–2013).

The study of this settlement is carried out as a part of a Russian-German joint project aimed at studying the Bronze Age sites located in the Karagaily-Ayat River valley (Koryakova, Krause, 2013: 1). One of our main aims is to reconstruct the subsistence strategy and ways this ancient group interacted with their environment. Archaeozoological methods were complemented by the employment of ethnozoological data in order to attain the purposes of the study most effectively.

Material and methods

The fortified settlement of Konoplyanka is located in the Kartalinsky District of the Chelyabinsk Region, at the headwaters of the Karagaily-Ayat River, approximately

2 km northwest of a homonymous village (Sharapova et al., 2014: 102). This one-layer site contains predominantly materials of the Sintashta-Petrovka time, and is preliminary dated to 1920–1745 BC (Ibid.: 107– 108). The excavation covered 96 m2 and unearthed parts of a fortification, including ramparts, ditch, internal wall, and part of an adjacent construction (Ibid.: 104).

The osteological sample comprises 779 bones*. The sample was studied according to the protocol adopted at the Laboratory of Paleoecology of the Institute of Plant and Animal Ecology (UB RAS). The age at slaughter of cattle and Ovicapridae (sheep and goat) was identified on the basis of state of eruption of buccal teeth and the epiphyses (Silver, 1969). Bone measurements were taken following the protocol by Driesch (1976). Sizes of the domestic ungulates were reconstructed using the coefficients for calculating the height at the withers from metapodial and talar dimensions (Tsalkin, 1960: 119; 1970: 162). The protocol adopted at the Laboratory of Natural Science Methods of the Institute of Archaeology (RAS) was employed for the reconstruction of food-meat composition (Antipina, 2013: 139).

Taphonomy and taxonomic composition of the sample

More than a half of the bone fragments display a perfect preservation (stage 0 after (Behrensmeyer, 1978)). All these well-preserved bones were excavated from the filling of the ditch. The rest of the sample was collected inside construction 1, and exhibits traces of weathering (stage 1–2 after (Ibid.)). Almost all complete bones and large bone fragments were found in the filling of the ditch.

Bones identifiable to a particular species compose a substantial part of the sample (80 %). Most of these belong to domestic ungulates (Table 1). Cattle ( Bos taurus ) and Ovicapridae (sheep and goat), horses ( Equus caballus ), pigs ( Sus scrofa domesticus ), and dogs ( Canis familiaris ) are present in the sample. Approximately ten coprolites of dogs, consisting mostly of bone chips, were found in the filling of the ditch as well. Among the bones of small cattle, only sheep bones ( Ovis aries ) were identified, while goat bones were not detected. However, this observation can be most likely explained by the low sample size. Wild species are represented by single bones of roe deer ( Capreolus pygargus ), fox ( Vulpes vulpes ), and beaver ( Castor fiber ). In the complex of bones unidentifiable at the species level, fragments of large ungulate bones are prevalent ( Mammalia indet .).

Age distribution of slaughtered domestic ungulates

The number of fragments of the lower and upper jaws of cattle and Ovicapridae is low: 17 and 16 specimens, respectively. Horse bones cannot be employed in the analysis, owing to their scarcity: only 3 teeth from young, 1 tooth from a semi-adult, and 4 teeth from adult animals were excavated. According to the state of the dentition, more than a half of the slaughtered cattle were adult (Table 2). Fragments of jaws of senile individuals (i.e. with severely worn teeth crowns) were observed in the sample as well. The proportion of young animals to adult among the small cattle was equal (Table 2).

Our sample does not provide a lot of data regarding epiphyseal fusion. The most representative samples of the bones of cattle were obtained only for the distal part of the radius (6 spec.), both ends of the tibia (5 and 7 spec., respectively), calcaneus (5 spec.), and metapodials (11 spec.). Analysis shows that if epiphyses accrete at the age of 2 to 2.5 years, then a significant preponderance of slaughtered individuals with fused epiphyses is observed; but if at the age of 3.5 to 4 years, then with separated epiphyses. Such an observation suggests that the majority of animals were

Table 1. Taxonomic composition of the archaeozoological collection

Species	Number	%
Cattle – Bos taurus	392	50.3
Ovicapridae – Ovis/Capra	137	17.6
Sheep – Ovis aries	20	2.6
Horse – Equus caballus	46	5.9
Pig – Sus scrofa domesticus	5	0.6
Dog – Canis familiaris	20	2.6
Roe deer – Capreolus pygargus	1	0.1
Fox – Vulpes vulpes	1	0.1
Beaver – Castor fiber	1	0.1
Unidentified – Mammalia indet .	156	20.1
Total , NISP	779	100

Table 2. Age at slaughter of the domestic ungulates

Dentition development Age, months Cattle, % Ovicapridae, % М3 erupted >30 58 43 М2 erupted, М3 not erupted 18–30 30 44 М1 erupted, М2 not erupted 6–18 0 13 М1 not erupted < 6 12 0 slaughtered at between 2 and 4 years of age. The horse bones and bones of small cattle are not considered, owing to their scarcity.

Prevalence of various skeletal elements of domestic ungulates, and modifications of bones

The only relatively representative bone sample is that of the cattle. It shows an equal ratio between bones of the head, corpus, fore and hind limbs. In the sample of small cattle, bones of the head and forelimbs are prevalent; while among the horse bone fragments, hind limbs predominate.

One hundred seventy two bones with various modifications were detected in the sample. The most prevalent types of modification are gnawing-marks and signs of the impact of gastric enzymes of dog – 51.1 %. This is followed by cutting and chopping marks – 15.1 %; and signs of thermal effects – 12.7 %. Single bones displaying gnawing-marks and manifestations of contact with gastric enzymes of cattle and Ovicapridae were also identified. Several bone crafts and blanks were found during the work with the osteological sample. All these artifacts are burnishing tools made from talar bones of cattle (1 spec.) or sheep (3 spec.).

Skeletal metrics of domestic ungulates

Only a small number of the bones of sheep and cattle were suitable for measurement (Tables 3 and 4). Among the bones of cattle, both cow and bull remains were found. At least two metacarpals, several fragments of the lower diaphyses of the humeral bones, and first phalanxes (judging by their robustness), belonged to bulls. The metacarpals were sexed visually, as sexual dimorphism is well pronounced in these bones (Telldahl et al., 2012).

The height at the withers of cows, reconstructed from one talus, was 115.8 cm, while metatarsals revealed higher values: 118.5–121.2 cm. Three metacarpals were detected, which presumably belonged to oxen, owing to their narrow diaphyses and massive epiphyses. The height at the withers of these animals varied from 125.6 to 132.4 cm. In a bull, the height was determined from a metatarsal bone as 134.4 cm. The height at the withers of sheep, reconstructed from 4 talar bones, varied from 65.5 to 81.3 cm.

Two fragments of horn rods and a skull from a hornless individual were identified among the bones of cattle, and fragments of horns were found among ovine remains as well. There were likely both horned and hornless individuals of both cattle and Ovicapridae present in the herd. The scarcity of data does not permit more detailed reconstructions.

Table 3. Cattle skeletal metrics, mm

Variable	n	Lim	M ± m
P 2 –M 3	4	144.0–156.0	147.7
P 2 –P 4	5	51.0–57.1	53.1
M 1 –M 3	5	86.5–98.8	91.6
М 3	8	32.4–41.8	37.7
Humerus, BТ	9	74.3–94.1	84.2
Tibia, Bd	5	58.5–69.7	64.8
Metacarpal, GL	3	205.0–215.0	210
Bp	3	67.4–71.6	68.9
SD	3	30.5–42.1	38.0
Bd	3	70.1–77.1	74.5
Metatarsal, GL	3	218.0–245.0	228.0
Bp	4	47.3–58.1	52.6
Bd	3	52.7–70.7	59.6
Phalanx I, Glpe	14	55.3–68.4	62.0
Phalanx II, Glpe	10	33.4–47.2	41.6

Table 4. Sheep skeletal metrics, mm

Variable	n	Lim	M ± m
М 3	6	22.3–27.9	24.9
Tibia, Bd	3	30.1–31.9	30.7
Astragalus, GLI	4	29.0–35.9	32.6
Metatarsal, GL	1	169.5	169.5
Metatarsal, Bp	2	23.0–24.0	23.5
Phalanx I, Glpe	4	41.0–45.2	43.4
Height at the withers	4	65.5–81.3	73.9

Results of the paleopathological analysis

A small number of pathological manifestations were only observed in the bones of adult cattle (18 spec.) and sheep (4 spec.).

Cattle. Of dental pathologies in the sample of cattle, one case of a wedge-shaped defect of the incisor was detected. It can be described as a V-shaped incision between the root and the crown of the tooth (see Figure , 1 ). Depressions of articular surfaces were the most prevalent postcranial pathology (11 spec.) observed in the bovine phalanxes, metapodials, and carpal bones. These emerge as a result of local disturbances in the mineralization of subchondral bones (Thomas, Johannsen, 2011: 52). Among arthropathies, the most prevalent is Type 2 (after (Ibid.: 44)): clefts of the articular surface up to 1 mm wide and 5.0 to 10.5 mm long (see Figure , 2 ). A depression of Type 4 ( after (Ibid.: 46)); round hollow 1.0–1.5 mm in diameter and up to 1 mm deep) was also detected (see Figure , 3 ). Two loci of eburnation were

Dental and bone pathologies of cattle ( Bos Taurus ) ( 1–6 ) and Ovicapridae (sheep and goat) ( 7 , 8 ), and an example of bone gnawing (osteophagy) by domestic ungulates ( 9 ).

1 – wedge-shaped defect of an incisor; 2 – depression of the 2nd type on the distal articular surface of the first phalanx; 3 – depression of the 4th type on the distal articular surface of the second phalanx; 4 – eburnation and proliferation of a pelvic bone; 5 – deformation and widening of the proximal articular surface of the first phalanx; 6 – depression on the volar surface of a metacarpus; 7 – precocious wear of P₄ and M₁ and an inflammation of the alveolus of a mandible; 8 – arthropathies of a sheep’s talar bone; 9 – metatarsus gnawed by cattle.

found: in the central tarsal bone and in a fragment of the pelvic bone. In the latter, a proliferation of the periarticular surface was observed (see Figure , 4 ). A marked widening and deformation of the proximal articular surface was identified in a first phalanx of a bull (see Figure , 5 ). Two oxen metacarpals studied are of particular interest, as they display a number of pathological changes simultaneously. In both bones, subtle deformations and widenings of the articular facets of the distal epiphysis were observed. One of the bones, in addition, exhibits a marked depression (hollow) on the volar surface near its lower end (see Figure , 6 ) and an arthropathy in the ridge of the lateral trochlea. This metacarpus also demonstrates a pronounced asymmetry between the 3rd and 4th metacarpal bones.

Ovicapridae. In an ovine mandible, manifestations of an inflammatory process of an alveolus were detected in the area of the P₄ and M₁, as well as a strong precocious wear of these teeth (see Figure , 7 ). Two types of arthropathy were observed in the ovine postcranial skeleton. A depression of Type 2, similar to the one described above, was found on the distal articular surface of a second phalanx. On the medial surface of both ridges of a sheep’s talus, we identified the second stage of the Laesio circumscripta tali arthropathy (after (Zimmermann et al., 2018: 20)). This lesion is a microscopic locus of osteonecrosis, which was formed as a result of insufficient blood supply (see Figure , 8 ).

The interpretation of the observed dental pathologies of cattle ( Bos taurus ) and Ovicapridae (sheep and goat)

is quite straightforward. The wedge-shaped defect can be related to congenital fragility of the cementum of the tooth neck in some individuals, but also to periodontal disease, the effect of salivary acids, or tough feed (Lukyanovsky, 1984: 150). The ovine dental pathology is likely a result of osteophagy found at the settlement (Caceres et al., 2013: 3113).

The etiology of the depressions on the articular surfaces is not yet known precisely, but it is established that causes of this pathology are different in different species. Depressions in the bones of cattle and Ovicapridae are manifestations of osteochondritis dissecans or osteochondrosis dissecans (Stevanovic et al., 2015: 7). However, some researchers suggest that the Type 2 depression is the least related to osteochondrosis . It is probably of developmental origin, and may not affect the functionality of the joint (Thomas, Johannsen, 2011: 53).

The eburnation and deformations of articular surfaces observed in the bones of cattle are not related to the use of the latter as draft animals, but are likely a result of age changes and occasional trauma. Similar lesions were observed in the bones of modern non-working cattle from the Karagaily-Ayat River valley. Pronounced asymmetry of the metacarpals are found in the modern cattle as well. However, the marked depression on the volar surface of the metacarpus of an ox, accompanied by a general asymmetry, may suggest that it was used as a draft animal. Such changes in the metapodials of cattle are typically viewed as markers of heavy physical exercise

(Bartosiewicz, 2008: 158–159). The most probable cause of the ovine talar arthropathies is housing of the animal in a stall, which can lead to a biomechanical stress to the joint (Zimmermann et al., 2018: 22).

Osteophagy of domestic ungulates

Several bone fragments with gnawing-marks caused by domestic ungulates were detected in the sample: three caused by cattle (see Figure , 9 ), and two by Ovicapridae . A survey of modern cow and sheep pens in the Karagaily-Ayat River valley revealed exactly the same type of modified bone fragments, which has helped to explain the modifications observed in the Konoplyanka sample. A thorough description of the types and stages of the modifications may be found elsewhere (Rassadnikov, 2017).

Osteophagy can be viewed as an innate and typical feature of non-nutritional behavior of all ungulates and a marker of mineral deficiency in animals, since plant food cannot completely fulfill the animal’s demand for minerals (Caceres et al., 2013: 3115; Hutson, Burke, Haynes, 2013: 4139). An important work by A.A. Kabysh describes a case of mass osteodystrophy of cattle, in the 1950s, in the Bredinsky District of the Chelyabinsk Region, i.e. in the Karagaily-Ayat River valley. The Konoplyanka settlement is located at the northern periphery of that district. A special commission was created to fight the osteodystrophy outbreak. The commission found that the Bredinsky District was an unusual biogeochemical province where the absorption of phosphorus and calcium in ungulates was disrupted, owing to the mineral composition of the soil (Kabysh, 1967: 334). Osteodystrophy is absent in the cattle of the Karagaily-Ayat River valley today, but cases of cattle and Ovicapridae eating bones and soil are observed despite mineral feeding of the animals. The probable cause of osteophagy by the cattle and Ovicapridae at Konoplyanka may be a combination of factors, including the specific features of the soils of the area, the peculiarities of all ungulates, and seasonal stress in some individuals. Intense dairy exploitation of cattle can be excluded from the list of potential reasons, because osteophagy is widespread among the modern beef cattle of the region.

The study of modern cow and sheep pens near the site has shown that, irrespective of the number of osteophagy markers found, such modified bones are suggestive of two important moments. First, they undoubtedly point to a homestead pattern of herding, since gnawed bones have been found exclusively inside the fence or its closest perimeter in moderns pens. If osteophagy is considered as a manifestation of general physiological stress, it is of note that in most ungulates such stress is observed in late winter to early spring, or during hot summer months (Niven, Egeland, Todd, 2004: 1789). The proclivity of ungulates for eating bones during periods of hot and dry weather has been documented in giraffes, for instance (Langman, 1978). Further, the modern system of pens where most markers of osteophagy have been found is used only during the snowless time of year. We also interviewed a number of herdsmen, who confirmed that osteophagy by domestic ungulates peaks in the summer. Thus, the markers of osteophagy may indirectly point to the season when they emerged. However, this issue requires further research.

Structure of meat food

Only indicators of the osteological spectrum for sheep, horse, and cattle were employed for the calculation of the amount of various kinds of meat consumed. Pig was not taken into account, since at present there is not enough evidence to believe that this domestic animal was bred for meat during the Bronze Age of the Southern Trans-Urals (Kosintsev, 2000: 41). The ratio of meat consumption demonstrates that beef was the main source of animal protein for the Konoplyanka population (Table 5). According to the data on dental eruption and fusion of epiphyses, young animals were consumed along with individuals older than 4–5 years of age. The second most popular type of meat was horsemeat, the third, mutton. Meat of young and adult sheep was consumed in almost equal amounts.

Probable pattern of herding

Reconstruction of the most probable type of herding at Konoplyanka is the most challenging task in this study. First, there are no data on the isotopic composition

Table 5. Meat food composition

Indicator	Beef	Mutton	Horsemeat	Total
Osteological spectrum, %	65.9	26.4	7.7	100 (595 bones)
Multiplicity of the weight of cattle carcasses in respect to a sheep carcass	6	1	5.5	–
Amount of meat products in standard units	394.8	26.3	42.3	463.4
Proportion of various types of meat, %	85.2	5.7	9.1	100

of bone collagen for the domestic ungulates, which could have helped to reconstruct the pattern of housing and feeding. Second, in the south of the Chelyabinsk Region, it is not possible to find a direct analogy of the homestead, transhumant, or homestead-transhumant herding, which are believed to have existed at several settlements of the Sintashta culture (Kosintsev, 2000: 44; Bachura, 2013: 287). In order to solve this problem, a number of data sources were employed, including the age distribution of the sample of cattle, the markers of osteophagy in domestic ungulates, and observations on the modern system of grazing management for cattle and Ovicapridae in the Karagaily-Ayat River valley. The age distribution of the slaughtered animals is indicative of a milk and meat type of husbandry. Thus, it can be hypothesized that at least a part of the herd was kept near the settlement for milking. The markers of osteophagy may suggest indirectly that the whole herd, or part of it, might have stayed near the settlement during the warm time of the year. Our observations on the modern grazing management system near the site have shown that even a small area of a river valley can, for decades, support the daily grazing of several small herds (100–150 heads) of domestic ungulates during the snowless period. Notably, steppe vegetation is resistant to grazing of mixed herds including cows, sheep, goats, and horses, and does not manifest signs of overgrazing. The hay for winter stall housing is harvested in the area adjacent to the river that is not used as a pasture. Summing up, it can be reasonably hypothesized that the area (2–3 km in radius) of the river valley surrounding the settlement could have supported the demands of the settlement’s inhabitants for a pasture and foraging base for many years.

Conclusions

Unfortunately, not all aspects of the results of this study can be discussed thoroughly, owing to space limitations. We only discuss the main findings of the archaeozoological analysis of the Konoplyanka sample. In general, they show that a developed homestead herding was typical of the Sintashta cultural traditions. Husbandry appears to have been the main source of food for that population. This conclusion is also corroborated by the results of paleobotanical studies that failed to identify microscopic remains of agricultural plants in the site’s cultural layer (Stobbe et al., 2016). Fishing probably did not play an important part in the subsistence strategy of the inhabitants of the settlement, since fish bones have been found neither in the ditch (which provides good conditions for the preservation of small bones) nor in the dog coprolites.

The domestic type of husbandry is confirmed by observations on the modern system of grazing management for cattle (Bos taurus) and Ovicapridae in the Karagaily-Ayat River valley, and also by paleobotanical data showing that the surrounding landscape was suitable for domestic herding (Ibid.). Judging by the same data, the areas of the valley located at the distance of 5 to 15 km from the settlement were presumably used for grazing. A number of observations point towards a high level of herder’s skills in the inhabitants of the settlement. First, the low prevalence of skeletal pathologies is indicative of satisfactory conditions for housing the cattle. Second, manifestations of the castration of bulls were detected. Finally, oxen were used as draft animals. The signs of osteophagy in the domestic ungulates suggest that the herd was held near the settlement during the cold and, presumably, even warm (cows) part of the year. A number of bone lesions identified (i.e. arthropathies of the articular surfaces—a manifestation of restricted mobility of the joint) may be interpreted as indirect evidence of stall-housing of the animals. The reconstructed meat food composition of the settlement’s inhabitants, and the fact that the oxen were used as draft animals, show that cattle were the most important kind of domestic ungulates.

Acknowledgement

This study was supported by the Russian Science Foundation (Project No. 16-18-10332).