The different types of lexical and grammatical transformations

According by L.S. Barkhudarov, translation transformation can be classified into grammatical and lexical ones. There are several types of transformations.

• 1.    The first type of lexical transformations is used in translating words with wide and non differentiated meaning. The essence of this transformation lies in translating such words of SL by words with specified concrete meaning in TL. When translating from English into Russian Uzbek they use it especially often in the sphere of verbs. If English verbs mostly denote actions in rather a vague general way, Russian verbs are very concrete in denoting not only the action itself but also the manner of performing this action as well: "to go (on foot, by train, by plane, etc.)" -"идти пешком",пиёда бормоқ "ехать, поездом" поезда бормоқ, "лететь, самолетом", самалётда учмоқ etc.; "to get out" - "выбираться", чи"выходить", "вылезать", чиқмоқ "высаживаться", тушмоқ etc. The choice of a particular Uzbek verb depends on the context. It does not mean, of course, that the verb "to go" changes its meaning under the influence of the context. The meaning of "to go" is the same, it always approximately corresponds to the Uzbek ҳарактда бўлмоқ "перемещаться", but the norms of the Russian language demand a more specified nomination of the action. The same can be illustrated with the verb "to be": "The clock is on the wall", "The apple is on the plate and the plate is on the table" -"Соат деворда", "олма тарелка устида, тарелка стоит на

• 2.    The second type of transformation is quite opposite in its character and is usually called “generalization”. In many cases the norms of TL make it unnecessary or even undesirable to translate all the particulars expressed in SL. Englishmen usually name the exact height of a person: "He is six foot three tall". In Russian it would hardly seem natural to introduce a character saying "Он шести футов и трех дюймов росту"; In Uzbek we translated “Унинг бўйи олти фунт ва уч дюйм substituting centimeters for feet and inches wouldn't make it much better: "Он 190,5 сантиметров росту". Унинг бўйи 190,5 сантиметр The best variant is to say: "Он очень большого роста". Унинг бўйи баланд.

• 3.    The third type of transformation is based upon logical connection between two phenomena (usually it is a cause-and- effect type of connection), one of which is named in the original text and the other used as its translated version. This transformation presupposes semantic and logical analysis of the situation described in the text and consists in semantic development of this situation.

столе", тарелка стол устида though in all those cases "to be" preserves its general meaning "находиться".бўлмоқ The sentence "He's in Hollywood" in J.D.Salinger's "The Catcher in the Rye" should be translated as "Он работает в Голливуде", У Голливудда ишлайди.but if "Oxford" was substituted for "Hollywood" the translation would rather be "учится". ўқийди This transformation is applicable not only to verbs but to all words of wide semantic volume, no matter to what part of speech they belong: adverbs, adjectives, nouns, etc. E.g. due to their most vague meaning such nouns as "a thing", "stuff, "a camp" are used to denote practically anything, often remaining neutral stylistically. In Uzbek, however, nouns with so general a meaning are less universal; besides, they sometimes belong to the colloquial register which often makes it impossible to use them in translation (cf. "a thing" - "вещь" нарса, "штука" буюм, "штуковина" предмет). That is why in every case there should be found a word with a more concrete meaning denoting that particular "thing" or "stuff which is meant by the author: "... this madman stuff that happened to me" - "идиотская история, которая со мной случилась"; Мен билан ахмоқона содир бўлган ҳодиса"... all the dispensary stuff - "все медицинские препараты" ҳамма медицина препаратлар or “лекарства”; дори “toilet things” – “you have never done a single thing in all your life to be ashamed of'” – “за всю свою жизнь ты не совершил ни одного постыдного поступка”. Умринг давомида сен уяладиган иш килмабсан It is necessary to take into consideration not only denotative but connotative meanings as well.

The verb "to employ" is usually translated as “нанимать, принимать на работу” ишга олмоқ. Ишга қабул қилмоқ. But if Mark Twain's character is “accused of employing toothless and incompetent old relatives to prepare food for the foundling hospital”, of which he is warden, the verb acquires a shade of negative meaning (he is said to have used his position in order to pay money to his relatives for the work which they could not do properly); so it should be translated by a less “general” verb - e.g. “пристроить”, “жойлаштирмоқ”.

The English pronoun "you" deserves special attention. It can be translated only with the help of differentiation, i.e. either “ты” “сен” or "вы" “Сиз” The choice depends on the character, age, the social position of the characters, their relations, and the situation in which they speak. One should remember that the wrong choice can ruin the whole atmosphere of the text.

Generalization is also used in those cases when a SL a word with differentiated meaning corresponds to a word with non differentiated meaning in TL ("a hand" - "рука" қўл, "an arm" "рука", қўл etc.). The necessity to use generalization may be caused by purely pragmatic reasons. In the original text there may be many proper names informative for the native speakers of SL and absolutely uninformative for the readers in TL. They may be names of some firms, of the goods produced by those firms, of shops (often according to the name of the owner), etc.: Englishmen know that "Tonibell" is the name of various kinds of icecream produced by the firm Tonibell, while "Trebor" means sweets produced by Trebor Sharps LTD and "Tree Top" denotes fruit drinks produced by Unilever.

If the situation is developed correctly, that is if the original and translated utterances are semantically connected as cause and effect, the transformation helps to render the sense and to observe the norms of TL: “Mr Kelada's brushes would have been all the better for a scrub” (S.Maugham) – “Щетки мистера Келады ... не отличались чистотой”. Мистер Келладнинг чўткалари тозалиги блин ажралмасди. It may seem that the translation "не отличались чистотой" тозалиги билан ажралмас эди. Somewhat deviates from the original “would have been all the better for a scrub”. 4. The fourth type of transformation is based on antonyms (антонимик таржима). It means that a certain word is translated not by the corresponding word of TL but by its antonym and at the same time negation is added (or, if there is negation in the original sentence, it is omitted in translation): “It wasn't too far.” – “Это оказалось довольно близко”,“Жуда яқин экан”. Not far = близко.

Grammar transformations are defined by L.S. Barkhudarov as numerous and varied in their quality inter-lingual changes which are made to achieve adequacy in translation in spite of discrepancies in the formal and semantic systems of a SL and a TL the syntactic level favors’ substitutions which retain the syntactic invariant despite various other replacements, e.g. The sun disappeared behind a cloud. Солнце скрылось за тучей. Қуёш булут орасига яширинди.The semantic level admits of a variety of transformations including passivation, nominalization, replacement of a word by a word group, etc. E.g. Ваша жена прекрасно готовит - Your wife is a super cook. Аёлингиз жуда ажойиб пазанди. In such cases the invariant is retained on two sublevels: (a) componential (b) referential (У меня стоят часы - My watch has stopped Соатим тўхтади.). The pragmatic level regarded as a top level in the hierarchy of levels exists irrespective of the other two levels and allows a wide range of transformations which cannot be described in terms of a single type (e.g. many happy returns of the day – С днём рождения. Туғилган кунингиз билан).