The Narodnik Groups and Organizations of Rostov-on-Don and Armenians (the 70s-80s of the 19th century)

The relevance of the topic: The issue of studying the activities of the Narodnik organizations of Rostov-on-Don and Nakhichevan-on-Don is of great historical and contemporary significance.

After the dramatic political events of March 1, 1881, Narodnik figures turned their attention to the southern provinces of the Russian Empire, thus seeking to further intensify the Narodnik movement. In this regard, Rostov-on-Don played a special role. The latter not only became the center of the Narodnik movement in the southern provinces but also served as a connecting link between the same groups and organizations in Transcaucasia and the central leadership bodies of the Narodniks.

Armenian students and intellectuals actively participated in the Narodnik groups and organizations operating in Rostov-on-Don. There was a fairly large Armenian community in Rostov-on-Don (also known as Nakhichevan-on-Don). The latter was closely connected with Russian culture, science and social and political life. It was precisely this circumstance that determined their active participation in the Narodnik movement. Russian revolutionary Narodnik ideas spread widely spread in Eastern Armenian reality and developed to a certain extent adapting to the demands arising from Armenian reality. The Armenian community of Nakhichevan-on-Don (Нахичевань-на-Дону) also played a significant role in this process. Many of the fundamental principles of the ideology of the Revolutionary Narodnik movement were also transferred to the parties formed in Armenian reality, which continued their activities in the 240

future. In other words, the ideas of communal socialism were transformed in Armenian reality and adapted to the tactics and strategies of the parties that were later formed.

The purpose of the research: The main goal of the study of the scientific topic is to present the history of the general activities of the Narodnik groups of Rostov-on-Don in the 70s-80s of the 19th century, to emphasize the close, friendly relations between prominent Armenian and Russian Narodnik figures and their role in the process of spreading the Narodnik movement and ideas.

The research objectives are:

• 1.    To present a general description of the topic based on valuable materials available in Armenian and Russian scientific works, to offer some interpretations;

• 2.    To emphasize the role of Armenians in famous Narodnik groups and organizations;

• 3.    To present little-studied memoirs of famous Narodniks on the historical events of the highlighted period;

• 4.    To publish new archival materials that will contribute to the formation of unbiased scientific views on these historical events.

The scientific novelty of the topic: This issue has received very little attention from Armenian and Russian scholars. A number of issues related to the activities of the Narodniks, the spread of their ideas, the persecution and arrests of prominent figures, and other historical events have not been studied.

The Russian Narodnik movement had a profound influence on the Armenian and Russian progressive intelligentsia of the time. The publications issued by the Narodniks occupied a unique place in the system of formation of the cultural values of the Armenian and Russian people. The scientific novelty of the research includes the study of new archival documents from Russia, a fresh analysis of scholarly materials contained in Armenian and Russian sources. Important sources for studying the issue are the documents preserved in the central archives of the Russian Federation as well as other published sources.1 Also of great importance are the memoirs of figures who directly participated in the populist movement in Rostov-on-Don such as P. Peshekerov, M. Popov and others. The memoirs of Russian Narodnik figures who in various instances referred to the participation of Armenians in the Narodnik movement are also very valuable. From this perspective, the memoirs of A. Bach are particularly valuable, which contain very important information on this issue.1

Thanks to Armenian and Russian sources as well as new archival documents, the historical events related to the issue under discussion were presented in new formats.

Methodology: The study employs descriptive, historical, comparative, and causal-analytical methods, as well as the identification of cause-and-effect relationships.

The activities of the Narodnik figures of Rostov-on-Don in the 70s of the XIX century according to Armenian and Russian sources

Various authors of both the Soviet and post-Soviet periods have referred to the participation of Armenians in the activities of Narodnik groups and organizations operating in Rostov-on-Don and the southern provinces of the Russian Empire. Among the Soviet authors, A. Hovhannisyan referred to the participation of Armenians in the activities of the Narodnik organizations of Rostov-on-Don.2 He referred to the activities of M. Kayalyan (Kaylov), the Peshekerov brothers and others, and demonstrating their significant role in the activities of the Narodnik organizations of Rostov-on-Don and Nakhichevan-on-Don.

• V. Barkhudaryan also touched upon the history of the Armenian community of Rostov-on-Don and Nakhichevan-on-Don, as well as the revolutionary populist movement of the community’s youth and intelligentsia, in a number of his articles and monographs.³ Based on archival documents, archival sources, as well as Armenian and foreign literature, he extensively discussed the active participation of theArmenians of Nakhichevan-on-Don and their role in the spread of Narodnik ideas.

As V. Barkhudaryan and H. Aleksanyan rightly noted, the Armenians of the Don region maintained close ties with the Russian Armenian communities and colonies in other countries. Let us emphasize that those close ties with the Armenian masses of Armenia were manifested in response to major pan-Russian events and in addressing matters concerning their homeland on various issues. Nakhichevan-on-Don, as the area with the densest Armenian population, was at the center of these relations.4 In this regard, Barkhudaryan emphasized that, particularly in the period following the Crimean War, Narodnik ideas also spread to the Russian-Armenian regions and, first of all, to the Armenian Colony of the Don region. In the sphere of public life of the centers of Russia, Armenian students and youth in general become acquainted with the progressive ideas of the time and tried to influence the social and political life of the Russian-Armenian masses in the light of those ideas. Among the youth of Nakhichevan-on-Don, the first to be mentioned is the name of the revolutionary-democrat Mikael Nalbandyan.... The general socio-economic environment of his birthplace initially influenced M. Nalbandyan’s rebellious spirit, became the basis for his revolutionary-democratic worldview, which, as is known, was finally formed under the ideological influence of Russian progressive thinkers.5

M. Nalbandyan, being under the influence of A. Herzen, N. Chernyshevsky and Russian progressive thinkers, himself contributed to the spread of revolutionary populist ideas in Armenian reality. This phenomenon first appeared by the example of the Armenian colony of Nakhichevan-on-Don.

Particularly noteworthy are H. Ghevondayan’s observations regarding the participation of Armenians in the Narodnik movement, which were reflected in detail in his monograph.6 He also presented in detail the active participation of the Don Armenians in the Narodnik movement, relying on various principles. H. Ghevondayan highly appreciated the role of the Armenians of Nakhichevan-on-Don in the dissemination of revolutionary Narodnik ideas in the Armenian reality.

Russian historian A. Tereshchenko wrote an interesting work to cover this issue.7 Based on both archival documents and the memoirs of Narodnik figures, he covered various aspects of this issue in detail.

As early as the late 1860s of the 19th century, individuals with democratic or oppositional views from Russia, the Caucasus and even abroad came to Nakhichevan-on-Don. Some of them immediately suspended their activities and were arrested. Thus, in the spring of 1871, Hakob Sunyan was arrested in Nakhichevan-on-Don, who was spreading harmful ideas to the Christian faith and at the same time criticizing the government.8 In March 1872, the police department of the city of Rostov opened a case against Mkrtich Hambardzumov Konikov, who had come to the southern regions of Russia from Constantinople in 1868, and in 1870, he had settled in Nakhichevan-on-Don. Strict police surveillance was established over him.9

The Narodnik movement in Rostov-on-Don began to become active in the 1870s of the 19th century. It was during this period that such prominent figures as Serob and Petros Peshekerov, Hakob Shapovalov, Makar Popov, Rafael Chernyshev, Melkon Kayalyan and others joined the Narodnik groups and organizations. P. Peshekerov noted these events in his memoirs: “Rostov was a central station in the south for those who were going to cross the Don and the North Caucasus, to go to the people. There were permanent apartments for propagandists there. They received funds and passports there, and finally they received preparatory knowledge to go to the people”.10

It is worth noting that S. Peshekerov and H. Shapovalov stood out while still at the Realakan School of Rostov-on-Don. During their years of study there, they opposed the school’s strict discipline and requirements viewing these requirements as a restriction on the development and freedom of students.11

In 1879, H. Shapovalov together with other students wrote a letter addressed to the Minister of Enlightenment Tolstoy, in which he severely criticized the arbitrariness existing in Rostov educational institutions.12

In the summer of 1878, the famous revolutionary P. Rodin began active work to create a revolutionary organization of workers in Rostov.13He escaped from prison and settled illegally in Rostov. P. Rodin organized a revolutionary workers’ organization there which carried out active propaganda work. S. Peshekerov also actively participated in these works. It was during this period that self-study circles began to gain widespread popularity in Rostov. As P. Peshekerov testified, there were more than ten groups in Rostov in which classes were held systematically. In those classes, Mirtov’s (Lavrov’s) “Historical Letters”, V. Bervi-Flerovsky “The Alphabet of Social Sciences”, Spencer’s “What is Progress”, Lassalle’s works and other works were discussed.14

The revolutionary youth in Rostov were stimulated by the workers’ unrest in 1879, which also spread to Nakhichevan-on-Don. According to P. Peshekerov, the workers’ demonstrations against the police and local authorities were led by a local Narodnik group.15

In 1879, S. Peshekerov was summoned for questioning for a caricature of Alexander II which was distributed at the Realakan School of Rostov.16

The active period of S. Peshekerov’s activities began in 1880. It was at this time that he entered the Petersburg Technological Institute, where he participated in the work of the Narodnik groups with radical students. Peshekerov conducted propaganda work among workers. He was interested in the activities of Russian revolutionary groups and publications of Narodnik literature. And during the summer holidays of 1881, he returned to Rostov and participated in organizing self-education circles, including new members.17 In fact, through Peshekerov’s efforts, the Narodnik movement in Rostov-on-Don began to develop on new principles. By establishing self-development groups, S. Peshekerov not only included new people in these groups, but also these self-development groups, both in many places of the Russian Empire, and in Rostov-on-Don and Nakhichevan-on-Don, became the base for the formation of new Narodnik groups.

The Cooperation between Armenian and Russian Narodniks of Rostov-on-Don in the 1880s: persecution and arrests of Famous Narodniks according to Armenian and Russian Sources

In the spring of 1882, a large Narodnaya Volya workers’ group began to form in Rostov based on the self-education workers’ groups created by S. Peshekerov in 1880-1881. The organizer of this group was again S. Peshekerov who came to Rostov during his holidays in the summer of 1882.18 The famous Narodnik A. Bach confirmed this, emphasizing Peshekerov’s role in that organization and holding him in high regard as a revolutionary figure. In this regard, Bach testified: “Thanks to the activities of S. Peshekerov who was undoubtedly a high-level personality in moral and intellectual terms, in 1882-1883 a very influential group was formed in Rostov which paid special attention to the issue of propaganda among the workers”.19

In April 1882, Litvinov arrived in Rostov, established contact with the workers of the railway workshops through Peter and Platon Peshekerov. He actively participated in the propaganda work of the Narodovolya among the workers and students. A. Nechvolodov, who initially lived in Rostov in the Peshekerovs’ house, also established contact with the railway workers participating in the organization of new groups and in propaganda work.20

The active activity of the Peshekerov brothers21 and the Narodnik organizations in Rostov and New Nakhchivan in general attracted the attention of the police department. The police searched the Peshekerovs’ apartment and questioned Nechvolodov and Litvinov. The police were able to obtain various correspondence, monetary donations belonging to the group and other materials. S. Peshekerov was in Petersburg at the time.22

During the interrogation, P. Peshekerov, Litvinov, Emelyan Kayalov, A. Peshekerov and Peshekerov’s mother stated that the worker had not been to their house and that they had not heard anything about the existence of a secret group. The same was confirmed by S. Peshekerov who was arrested in Petersburg. During a search, a letter addressed to L. Kolezev, who was exiled to the Tver province, was found in his possession.23 According to one archival document, Peshekerov declared that he was acquainted with Litvinov, but he did not consider him to be among his close friends. Peshekerov himself had heard nothing about the secret group connected to the workers’ districts, and he did not know Nechvolodov at all. He also confirmed that scientific work was sometimes discussed in his apartment but neither Litvinov nor any of the workers were present at these discussions.24 With these testimonies, Peshekerov was actually trying to mislead the gendarmerie and present the selfdevelopment groups as organizations that exclusively fill educational gaps and whose activities had nothing to do with any political organization.

However, those testimonies could not convince the police that those groups had a purely self-development goal and were devoid of political content. The report emphasized: “In Rostov, there was a group of intellectuals, mostly young local students who sought to establish contacts with the workers in order to improve their material situation, increase their intellectual development and propagate socialist ideas among them.... Paying attention to the increase in the degree of crime of each accused due to the investigation, it appears that the accused Litvinov, Serob and Petros Peshekerov have been sufficiently exposed as belonging to a socialist group organized in Rostov-on-Don.”25 These archival materials indicate that the police were well informed about the activities of the Peshekerov brothers and the aforementioned groups. On the other hand, it is evident that the police clearly emphasized the existence and active activities of a socialist, namely Narodnik group in Rostov-on-Don.

The report proposed that Litvinov, Nechvolodov and S. Peshekerov be exiled to one of the provinces of Western Siberia at the discretion of the Minister of Internal Affairs. As for P. Peshekerov, it was planned to take him under police supervision for a period of three years prohibiting him from leaving Rostov-on-Don during that period. S. Peshekerov’s mother, wanting to free her son, from exile, offered to release P. Peshekerov in Rostov in exchange for a surety of 1,500 rubles but was refused26.

After these searches and arrests, however, the Narodnik movement in Rostov-on-Don did not weaken; on the contrary, it became more active and acquired a new quality. Regarding these events, P. Peshekerov wrote: ‘’After my brother’s arrest, a stronger party group was formed with us under the leadership of Bach, and its members were I. Ivanov, P. Antonov, D. Dobruskina, Kalntsev as well as D. Yelko who were illegal.... In addition, from time to time we were visited by other members of the party: G. Lopatin, V. Sukhomlin and others ‘’.27 Among the Armenian members of the group were Hakob Shapovalov, Makar Popov, Melkon Kayalyan and others.28

P. Peshekerov himself also actively participated in the work of the Narodnik group of Rostov. From 1882 to the end of 1884, he was a member of a subgroup of this group, and later, he became a member of the central group and led the training of the workers’ group. P. Peshekerov also participated in the work of the periodical “Nakanune” (“Накануне”) which published materials from working-class circles.29

The Tsarist gendarmerie took steps to prevent the spread of illegal literature. Thus, in April 1880, by order of the Ekaterinoslav governor, Gr. Babaev’s lithography was closed, and a year later Mkrtich Hayrapetov was prosecuted for publicly insulting the Tsar.30

The preparation of passports for members of the Narodnaya Volya group of Rostov was organized by Hakob Shapovalov who was considered an active member of the group.31 He was in close contact with G. Lopatin, Dobruskina and other members of the central group. Shapovalov helped the organization prepare explosives to protect the secret printing house in Rostov. I. Geyer was summoned from Lugansk at his address, who manufactured dynamite for Shapovalov based on Kibalchich’s designs.32 As evidenced by archival materials, later, during a search of Shapovalov, the police found a fuse filled with explosives, detonators and bullets as well as the passport regulations, passport stamps. According to the testimony of photographer Boysky, Shapovalov lived with him in the photo studio, worked as a retoucher and was often visited by strangers. And according to the testimony of another witness, Zavarzin, Shapovalov was often visited by Dobruskina.33

Bach described Shapovalov as a person with rare determination and resourcefulness in taking advantage of circumstances, thanks to whom the arrest of I. Ivanov, one of the major figures of the Narodnaya Volya group was prevented. He managed to obtain from the police chief’s office a package of secret orders concerning persons accused of political crimes and wanted. That package contained an order to immediately arrest a person with the passport of the Kiev nobleman Lysenko living in Rostov, that is I. Ivanov.34

Shapovalov was highly appreciated by A. Sukhomlin who had been with him for about a year in the Peter and Paul Fortress. In that fortress, Shapovalov was in a cell next to Sukhomlin. Sukhomlin wrote about this: “During that time, we became friends, I completely got to know and love him”.35

Shapovalov was arrested on October 11, 1884 in Novocherkassk, from where he was transferred to a high-security prison in Moscow. During the investigation, G. Lopatin tried to take certain steps to improve Shapovalov’s situation. He stated that he did not know Shapovalov at all and had no ties to him. As for the mention of Shapovalov’s name in the bundle of notes confiscated by the police, Lopatin stated that he had made that note with the intent of later involving Shapovalov in illegal activities.36

All these facts testify to the great role of Shapovalov in the Narodnaya Volya group of Rostov-on-Don.

One of the famous Narodnik propagandists operating in Rostov-on-Don was I. Rafailov. It is not known in detail which group he worked in or which figures he collaborated with. But that Rafailov had extensive connections was evidenced by the fact that he regularly received Narodnik literature, leaflets and appeals. To hide the literature and other facts, Rafailov used his and his two brothers’ apartments. It is likely that his brothers also had some connections with Narodnik figures. During a search in one of the apartments, the police found the 4th and 5th issues of the Narodnaya Volya printed on a hectograph machine, the Rabochaya Gazeta of January 27, 1881 and a statement of the Executive Committee to “the Officers of the Russian Army”. Five copies of an appeal addressed to the “Cossacks”, three copies of an appeal to “Honest Public Figures”, an appeal to the Tsar to grant political freedoms to the people, a leaflet about the assassination attempt on Loris-Melikov by Mladetski, various writings, etc. were also found. In the second apartment where Rafailov himself lived, issue 16 of Narodnaya Volya was seized as well as 9 sealed envelopes containing appeals to the “Russian Working People” and the “Ukrainian People”.37

It was likely that Rafailov intended to establish a secret Narodnik Printing House in Rostov-on-Don. He tried to spread the Narodnaya Volya appeals in various places such as the village of Yelinka, the Baryshev farm and the Stepnoy Station. Having discovered these appeals, the police were able to locate and arrest Rafailov. In the summer of 1882, he exiled by administrative order to Western Siberia.38

According to Peshekerov, one of the prominent members of the central Narodnaya Volya group of Rostov was Rafael Chernyshev.39 His uncle’s summer house located not far from the Armenian Church of the Holy Cross often served as a gathering place for the Narodnaya Volya group of Rostov or members of the central leadership had come to Rostov moved there.40Bach hid in this summer house for a long time avoiding the persecution that began after March 1, 1881.According to him, he was often visited here by I. Ivanov who after some preparatory steps fled to the north avoiding arrest.41

R. Chernyshev was also connected with G. Lopatin as evidenced by the latter’s notebook that came into the hands of the police as well as Makar Popov in his memoirs. Popov wrote in this regard: “In the summer of 1884, many of the Rostov revolutionary youth often gathered at the home of Rafael Chernyshev, a member of the local underground organization. Meetings of the Narodnaya Volya group with the participation of G. Lopatin often took place here”.42

Based on the notes in Lopatin’s notebook, the police arrested R. Chernyshev. However, in July 1885, he was released on bail due to deteriorating health and died shortly thereafter.43

One of the famous figures of the Narodnaya Volya Movement of Rostov-on-Don and Nakhichevan-on-Don was Makar Popov whose name was mentioned by P. Peshekerov in the list of members of the central group.44 One of the archival materials mentioned that after the arrests in the fall of 1884, the Narodnaya Volya group in Rostov practically ceased to exist. The interrogation of one of the group members, I. Ivanov, revealed that he had given M. Popov the printing type used to print the tenth issue of Narodnaya Volya and other items for safekeeping. In addition, M. Popov, at the addresses given by I. Ivanov distributed copies of the tenth issue of Narodnaya Volya in Rostov.45 In the process of moving and hiding the above-mentioned printing fonts and equipment, M. Popov was assisted by teachers from Nakhichevan-on-Don, Tumanov (Tumanyan), Elisafov (Elisafyan), worker Avdey Khachumov, and several other workers.46

M. Popov was arrested on April 24, 1885 in Nakhichevan-on-Don. On the same day he was sent to Petersburg. In 1887, during the “Process of the 21”, Popov was sentenced to death, which was, however, commuted by long-term exile.47

According to archival materials, Avdey Khachumov actively participated in the work of the group of “Narodnaya Volya” of Rostov. The file compiled by the gendarmerie stated that Khachumov was involved in an investigation related to the case of a leader of the Narodnaya Volya party. The investigation revealed that he had helped the aforementioned I. Ivanov transport five boxes containing clandestine equipment from the Rostov group’s printing house, and he had also taken two of those boxes for safekeeping. In addition, the police found out that in the presence of Khachumov, I. Ivanov had hidden two explosive devices in Lebedenko’s apartment. Taking all this into account, on April 1, 1887, Khachumov was sentenced to three years of exile in Siberia, in the Tobolsk Province, under strict police surveillance.48

After serving his sentence, Khachumov returned to Rostov and later moved to Yeisk (Ейск), where he opened a locksmith’s workshop. The gendarmerie investigation stated that since 1893, a group consisting of individuals representing different strata of society had been operating in Yeisk, and some of those individuals were known for their political views. Starting in January 1893, they organized secret parties accompanied by readings and conversations. Such gatherings also took place in the apartment of Avdey Khachumov, a citizen of Nakhichevan-on-Don, which was under covert police surveillance.49 At that time, there was a self-development group in Yeisk, which had its own library. The goal of the latter was to help those wishing to enter higher education institutions. The library’s collection included books on politics, the history of the workers’ and peasants’ movements in Russia and Europe as well as works by Chernyshevsky, Mikhailov, Blank and others which were banned in Russia. However, the gendarme report stated that no data was obtained that would indicate that conversations or readings of a criminal nature were held during the group’s meetings. Moreover, at those gatherings, they were limited to reading and discussing ordinary magazines, books, newspapers and books. The gendarmerie also clarified that the members of the group were not involved in the distribution of publications with criminal content. However, on the other hand, the fact that Khachumov enjoyed great prestige among local youth and workers was emphasized, and he participated in the work of the group. Moreover, the gendarme report emphasized that one of Khachumov’s close acquaintances in Yeisk was the administratively exiled Alexander Maritsky, who was involved in the investigation on charges of introducing a terrorist trend into the Rostov labor groups.50

Taking all this into account, the governor of Kuban Province, the ataman of the Cossack troops, and the head of the gendarmerie department demand that Khachumov be banned from residing in the Kuban, Rostov-on-Don, Taganrog and other provinces.51

In the late 70s and early 80s of the 19th century, Melkon Kayalyan was one of the famous Narodnaya Volya figures of Rostov-on-Don. His name was also mentioned, along with the Peshekerov brothers, among those who were members of the central group.52 There was information that in 1879, Kayalyan along with his like-minded Armenian youth, the aforementioned Makar Popov, Unanev, Astvatsatur Keshekyan, Mkrtich Voskerchyan and others celebrated the 50th anniversary of Nalbandyan’s birth at the Surb Khach Monastery by singing the songs “Our Homeland” and “Free God” at Nalbandyan’s grave.53

Having studied at the Lazarian Seminary in Moscow, Kayalyan was well acquainted with the Armenian language and literature. Having entered the Petersburg Mountain Institute, he met P. Yakubovich, the organizer of the “Molodaya Narodnaya Volya” group, and became one of his supporters in changing the tactics of the members of the Narodnaya Volya group.54 It is also known that Kayalyan was one of the organizers of G. Dobruskina’s business trip to Rostov-on-Don. Later, Kayalyan became one of the supporters of the “Molodaya Narodnaya Volya” group, and he was in close contact with G. Lopatin.55 In 1884-1885,

Kayalyan operated in Vladikavkaz.56 He was also in close relations with the Narodnik Krilov. The gendarmerie having arrested the latter, was able to find out that Kayalyan had also operated under the pseudonym “Mark Rostovsky”.57

According to archival facts, avoiding the persecution of the gendarmerie, Kayalyan emigrated to Bulgaria. Nevertheless, the gendarmerie took some steps to arrest him. Thus, in April 1891, the Russian Embassy in Sofia verified the names of the political emigrants who were in Bulgaria. In that list, along with the names of Debagori Mokrievich, Borodnikov and others, the name of M. Kayalyan was also mentioned.58 In this regard, the Police Department had appealed to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs asking it to contact the German Embassy so that the latter might mediate with the Bulgarian Government to return the emigrant M. Kayalyan to Russia as a person who had attracted the attention of the police.59 It is likely that the gendarmerie nevertheless managed to arrest M. Kayalyan since a document was preserved according to which he was sentenced to twenty-five years and exiled to Siberia, where his sister, Taguhi Kayalyan was also exiled and died in Siberia. In 1905, M. Kayalyan returned to Rostov with other exiles, where he died in 1913.60

Georgy Khodjaev also joined the Narodnik movement in Rostov-on-Don. In the middle of 1888, Khodjaev was arrested on charges of antigovernment activities and sentenced to four months in prison. After the sentence expired, he was placed under public police surveillance for three years.61

In Rostov-on-Don and Nakhichevan-on-Don, teachers from gymnasiums and colleges as well as the intelligentsia with radical sentiments also joined the Narodnik movement. In this regard, the political analysis of 1884of the Yekaterinoslav Province noted that there were personalities in the pedagogical environment who aroused suspicion. Among such teachers were Tumanova and Elisafov.62

In 1884, Tumanova was expelled from Rostov by order of the local administration, but the police department continued to be interested in her and tried to collect new data on the anti-government activities of the teacher Tumanova. The political report of 1884 noted that she had a significant influence in drafting an appeal to the “Society” by the students of the local college.⁶³ 252

In general, the Narodnaya Volya groups and organizations of Rostov-on-Don and Nakhichevan-on-Don, in whose activities the abovementioned Armenian students and intellectuals participated, played a major role in the spread of Narodnik ideas in the southern regions of Russia. The Rostov Central Narodnaya Volya group had close ties with similar organizations of Taganrog, Novocherkassk, Kharkov and Lugansk. It also had close ties with Tiflis which was evidenced by T. Romanchenko in his memoirs noting that illegal literature was sent to the working-class districts of Tiflis through Rostov Narodniks working on the railway.64

It is important to note that the Armenian youth of Rostov-on-Don and Nakhichevan-on-Don participated not only in the activities of local groups and organizations, but also actively participated in the work of Narodnik groups operating in other cities of the Russian Empire. Among them was Ulyana Asvadurova. She was born in 1864. She studied at the gymnasiums of Rostov-on-Don and New Nakhchivan. In the early 1880s, Asvadurova actively participated in the work of the Narodnaya Volya’ group establishing contacts with S. Goretsky and P. Peshekerov. On July 16, 1884, she was arrested with Tseitlin and Goltsev and was under gendarmerie surveillance until August 16 on charges of participating in the activities of the Kharkov group. In addition, during the search, the police found illegal literature in Asvadurova’s possession.65 According to one archival fact, in July 1886, the public police surveillance was replaced by non-public surveillance until January 1888.66

One of the active figures of Nakhichevan-on-Don was Nikita Voskanov, who organized a Narodnik group from young people studying in Taganrog. This was evidenced by a letter addressed to the City Gendarmerie Department of the Police Department of Yekaterinoslav, which emphasized that this group was founded on the initiative of N. Voskanov. It is likely that it was more of a self-development group, the activities of whose members were limited to collective reading.67

One of the active Narodnik figures of Rostov-on-Don was Lusbaron Peshekerov. In the first half of the 80s of the 19th century, he was engaged in the distribution of populist appeals and leaflets. On July 15, 1885, the police found a handwritten appeal addressed to the people posted on the gate of the Ust-Labinsky cemetery, and through investigation, they determined that the author of that and other appeals was L. Peshekerov.68

Conclusion

Summarizing the results of our scientific study, it can be emphasized that in the second half of the 19th century, Russian Revolutionary Narodnik ideas became widely spread in Eastern Armenian reality. The Armenian community of Nakhichevan-on-Don in Rostov-on-Don, which was closely connected with Russian socio-political life, also played a significant role in this process.

Among the prominent Narodnik figures were Serob and Petros Peshekerov, Hakob Shapovalov, Makar Popov, Rafael Chernyshev, Melkon Kayalyan, Pyotr Rodin, Litvinov and others.

Although the aforementioned Narodnik movement was suppressed at the time and some Narodniks were arrested by the gendarmerie, the participation of the Armenian youth and intellectuals of Rostov-on-Don and Nakhichevan-on-Don in the Narodnik movement left a significant mark on the history of revolutionary movements and contributed to the spread of Narodnik ideology in Armenian reality.