Verbalization of the behavioral aspect of the linguo-philosophical category of “relations” in Italian and English languages

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At the current stage of development in linguistic science, the identification of universal and linguocultural features of lexemes that denote similar or common concepts that present the category of RELATIONS in different languages is a relevant and promising direction in the field of lexical typology in comparative studies. Observing the scope of linguistic information regarding the usage of semantically close words in different languages opens new opportunities for understanding the world of human interaction in linguistic and cultural meanings.

The theoretical novelty of this research lies in the fact that it offers a comparative approach to analyzing the internal components that represent the category of RELATIONS as a linguocultural phenomenon. This approach can be generally characterized as linguocentric, since the primary research focus is on the linguistic substance of the category of RELATIONS. Within this framework, methods of thesaurus, cognitive, and conceptual analysis of the category of RELATIONS are being developed and tested.

The object of this research is the lexemes attitud e in English and atteggiamento in Italian in their linguocultural, linguocognitive, and diachronic interpretations.

The subject of the study is the cognitive-and-perceptual and linguocultural factors that accomplish revealing the behavioral sema in the structure of the lexemes under study, as well as their similarities and differences in the linguistic pragmatic realization in the compared languages.

The choice of the object and subject of research is determined by the significance of the category of RELATIONS in the conceptual sphere of humans, its multi-facetedness and interdisciplinary nature, which necessitates a comprehensive approach to analyzing its features.

The aim of this research is to determine the semantic organization of the meanings of two conceptually related words in English and Italian – attitude and atteggiamento – as the main verbalizers of the category of RELATIONS in relation to an aspect of its manifestation, namely behavior.

The aim of the study involves solving a number of tasks, including analyzing the general theoretical foundations for the conceptual comparison of lexemes expressing the category of RELATIONS in the scientific literature; examining the definitional interpretation of lexemes that represent this category in specialized lexicographic sources (Italian and English) with regard to both synchronic and diachronic aspects; analyzing the specifics of their representation in the compared languages in dictionaries and usage contexts; as well as demonstrating the similarities and possible peculiarities of their usage in the linguistic consciousness of speakers of Italian and English.

In the context of studying the lexico-semantic sphere of the linguo-philosophical category of RELATIONS from a behavioral aspect, as well as its verbalization in Italian and English, the following hypothesis is formulated: The semantic organization of the meanings of the lexemes attitude in English and atteggiamento in Italian demonstrates both similarities and significant differences, which can be explained by cultural, cognitive, and social factors and influence the perception and verbalization of the concepts related to relations and behavior. It is hypothesized that, from a linguocognitive perspective, different cultural contexts contribute to the formation of unique cognitive schemes and models among speakers of the languages, potentially leading to differences in the semantic content and usage of the corresponding lexemes. While attitude emphasizes evaluative and potential aspects of behavior, atteggiamento expresses more explicitly emotional and cultural predispositions. From a linguocultural perspective, speech practices and cultural norms of each language influence the preference for using these lexemes. Consequently, the category of RELATIONS is viewed as an activity phenomenon realized in both potential and real behavioral actions, with the basic semantically conceptualizing lexemes of this category that reveal their behavioral context based on the linguocultural space.

At the modern stage of linguistic science, one might assume that the universal and linguocultural features of lexemes nominating the category of RELATIONS in English and Italian significantly affect the perception and interpretation of concepts related to behavior. Thus, the differences and similarities in the semantic content of the words attitude and atteggiamento may indicate the specificity of the cognitive and cultural worldview of the speakers of these languages. The existence of differences in the lexical representation of the category of RELATIONS suggests that language serves not only as a means of communication but also reflects cultural characteristics and cognitive structures that shape behavioral dispositions in different languages.

The study of the processes of cognition of relations and behavior justifies the formulation of the problem of examining the origins and development of invariant features in the structures of meanings of the compared lexemes in an applied linguistic context. The interest in exploring the peculiarities of the usage of lexemes expressing the concept of RELATIONS and containing a component of behavior is due to their widespread occurrence in the language of various spheres of human activity. Additionally, the issue at hand involves the fact that the category of RELATIONS is a common and fundamental anthropological cognitive concept.

The theoretical and analysis of modern foreign and domestic scientific research on relations and behavior in the humanities shows that attempts to define the essence of human relations and behavior give rise to issues concerning their understanding within the scientific and theoretical concepts of studying the connections between attitudes and behavior. According to the conceptual framework provided by the theory of planned behavior [Ajzen, 1991; 2020], the immediate antecedent of behavior in this theory is the intention to perform a behavioral act. Behavioral intentions are determined by three factors: attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm regarding the behavior, and perceived behavioral control. In the field of cognitive psychology [De Houwer, Van Dessel, Moran, 2021], a propositional view of behavioral attitudes is presented.

Attitudes can also be seen as propositional and mental representations that help explain why stimuli evoke positive or negative responses, and they are moderated by relational and truth-related information. The review by D. Albarracin and S. Shavitt [2018] covers research on attitudes and attitude change published between 2010 and 2017, it characterizes this period as progressive in the understanding of how attitudes form and change in three critical contexts. The first context is the individual, where attitudes change in connection to values, general goals, language, emotions, and human development. The second context is social relations, which link attitude change to the communicator of persuasive messages, social media, and culture. The third context is sociohistorical, highlighting the influence of unique events, including sociopolitical, economic, and climatic occurrences.

In social psychology, Christian Fleck analyzes the development of approaches to understanding attitudes in relation to concepts such as instinct, imitation, and habit in the humanities. The author notes that the term “attitude” has replaced these concepts, thanks to the method of assessing opinions [Fleck, 2015].

In the fields of neuropsychology and behavioral sciences, the concept of attitude is studied in relation to behavior, emotions, personal states, inherited predispositions, social interactions, life experiences, and trust in the objective [Gaiseanu, 2020].

Research on the key attitudinal elements identifies the constructs that shape perceptions and behavioral intent, as well as how they can be influenced by various types of actual behavior [Bradford-Knox, 2020]. The study of presuppositions in natural attitudes presents its analysis as the basis of human behavior, where the complex meanings of linguistic expressions do not belong to the structure of language or cognition in metaphysics [Prandi, 2023].

A review of the current scientific literature shows that these perceptions and behavior are studied from various aspects and have a direct or indirect relationship with the linguistic means of their expression at different linguistic levels. In the field of semantic studies of language, the presuppositions of behavior and mindset have been investigated within the framework of binding theory [Blumberg, 2023]. In sociolinguistics [Amin, 2020], language attitudes are considered explanatory factors for changes in approaches to the study of linguistic phenomena. It is noted that these perceptions, as a psychological phenomenon, manifest themselves in the form of action or behavior. They are characterized by both psychological and behavioral traits. In ontogenesis, a person speaking, due to the interaction of two signaling systems, develops cognitive and speech abilities, provided that they are included in the socio-communicative environment of human society. This tool fills the image of the human world with content, mediating human life activity. This allows people to orient themselves in the environment and regulate their behavior and that of other members of society [Shaposhnikova, 2020, p. 156].

The category of RELATIONS demonstrates a number of interpretations in both scientific and ordinary worldviews.

In the cognitive aspect, behavioral actions depend on the speaker’s intentions, mood, thoughts, and psychological components. In a practical sense, within the framework of using linguistic means to express behavioral relations, we refer to certain actions taken by the subject in relation to specific addressees – observers of behavior [Savvateeva, 2023, pp. 150-153]. However, attention should be paid to the fact that in different cultures, perceived objects, processes, entities, phenomena, etc., that are subject to cognitive “processing” are endowed with unequal, dissimilar meanings. Percepts (images of what is perceived) in this case, depending on their significance and importance, receive different forms in languages [Ivanova, Verkhoturova, 2022, p. 46].

The theoretical foundations for studying the concept of RELATIONS in terms of behavior and its objectification in linguistics are determined by the anthropological nature and significance of this category. A historical review of approaches to studying relations, as the basis for understanding intra- and intergroup dynamics, is conducted within anthropological and social linguistics [Dragojevic et al., 2021].

The authors note the necessity to unify understanding the notion of relations, which may be seen in intensive dialogue between sociology and cognitive linguistics, shown in [Bicudo, 2023].

It is based on the question of whether the production and relations that constitute society are only related to complex and conscious actions or whether their sources can be found at more fundamental and unconscious levels of understanding. The author emphasizes that societies rely on basic and unconscious processes by which people make sense of social life, including their social relations and contacts [Bicudo, 2023]. In the field of cognitive linguistics, an analysis of the development and prospects of cognitive linguistics in relation to language, culture, and cognition is presented [Sinha, 2021]. It is noted that there is a necessity to study the socio-cultural context of language in cognitive linguistics, since cognition is conditioned by socio-cultural features and languages influence each other through contact and competition. The author predicts a future strengthening of the interaction between linguistics and anthropology, psychology, and the social sciences that study culture, consciousness, and language. In the field of applied linguistics, research has been conducted on the influence of motivation and the attitudes of speakers of a particular language and culture as emotional orientations in linguistic and cultural affiliation and orientation toward another host culture [Schmid, Gülsen, 2021].

The linguistic-and-cultural approach involves the analysis of nationally specific features of understanding relations in the behavior of both Italian and English speakers. These features are reflected in the forms of communication and the semantics of linguistic units. Language, at its core, is also behavior. Language has a strong cultural influence. The specific system of linguistic terms and forms that exists in a given culture represents an important part of the entire complex of influences to which an individual is exposed [Anastasi, 2001, p. 128].

According to I.V. Shaposhnikova, the image of the world is a complex dynamic semantic formation that reflects the intentionality of consciousness, its sociocultural determinism, other-centricity, and evaluativeness, based on cognitive and communicative-discursive mental activity, ordering semantic units according to their significance for the subject [Shaposhnikova, 2020, p. 156].

Regarding the specifics of the linguistic and cultural space when studying linguistic phenomena, N.L. Shamne notes that differences in the cultural apparatuses of communication participants can affect the structures of knowledge, forms of behavior, and linguistic means, and manifest themselves differently. At the same time, all these parameters are of a socio-historical nature and are associated not only with certain social formations but also with their historically specific manifestations [Shamne, 2003, p. 75].

Consideration of the specific ways in which various manifestations of the category of RELATIONS are perceived through individual cognitive structuring of reality – determined by national, cultural, and social factors – and how this perception is reflected in language, underlines the scientific novelty of this approach. It allows us to characterize features of verbalizing the behavioral aspect of this category within a specific linguistic culture.

Material and methods

The methodology of analysis is based on the method of linguistic observation – selecting lexemes, extracting lexemes with the meanings of behavior and relations from lexicographic and contextual sources, and correlating them with the studied linguistic category. The interpretative method is used to reveal the meaning of the obtained research results. The application of these methods is aimed at a deep logical-and-semantic analysis of the obtained lexicographic data and is based on the desire to identify and logically characterize the semantic development of verbalizers of the category of RELATIONS in behavior in the compared languages.

The determination of the linguogenetic affiliation of the examined lexemes and the selection of the feature of behavioral action in the semantics of words with the meanings of behavior and relations served as the basis for the analysis.

Comparative interpretation is applied for the purpose of studying the obtained comparable definitions and contexts of lexeme usage, as well as for comparing the results: identifying typical and atypical features of the studied category, establishing similarities and differences as its linguocognitive and linguocultural characteristics. The foundation of the analysis methodology is the research procedure of isolating the seme with the meaning of behavioral action in lexemes as a comparative parameter for comparison of their lexical development and functioning based on the diachronic evolution of this seme. The comparison of lexemes with the seme “behavioral action” in different languages and linguocultures provides an opportunity to assess the presence or absence of national specificity in expressing the category of RELATIONS and the degree of its manifestation in a behavioral context. Thus, the proposed methodology takes into account a systematic approach to comparing the meanings of words through the isolation of semes, establishing the degree of equivalence, and analyzing the results, which allows for a clearer description of the similarities and differences in the meanings of the words. The logical structure of this methodology ensures its clarity and consistency, making the analysis process more organized and effective.

The offered comparative methodology, that was applied to the semantic analysis of the lexemes attitude and atteggiamento , included a number stage.

• I.    Semantic-cognitive comparative diachronic analysis of the development, variation, and integration of the meaning of the category of RELATIONS (behavioral aspect) in the worldviews of the compared languages.

• II.    Component analysis of the semantics of lexemes representing the category of RELATIONS (behavioral aspect) based on explanatory dictionaries of attitude in English and atteggiamento in Italian. This involves identifying key semes associated with each lexeme that is linked to the analytical aspect of the category of RELATIONS .

• III.    Contextual analysis, through which, in addition to highlighting linguocognitive and linguocultural components, pragmatic component is also discovered in the semantics of the examined lexemes in the form of evaluative semes.

• IV.    In the final stage, an analysis of the similarities and differences among the meaning of the studied lexemes is conducted. This involves examining the obtained data to identify key trends in these similarities and differences, particularly focusing on how behavior, as expressed through attitude and atteggiamento , influences social relations in the two cultures.

Thus, the methodology of analysis allows for a deeper understanding of how the lexeme attitude in English relates to the Italian atteggiamento in the context of the behavioral aspect of the category of RELATIONS.

The source of material for the study consisted of explanatory dictionaries of Italian and English, as well as the national corpora of these languages. The analysis of examples from the Glosbe dictionary, as well as from the Written British National Corpus (BNC) and the Italian National Corpus (PAISÀ), allowed for the identification of a number of semantic features that specify the concepts denoted by these lexemes and, accordingly, groups of linguistic units that objectify the category of RELATIONS in the behavioral aspect. Based on the specified factual material, the contexts of usage for key units expressing the category of RELATIONS in the behavioral aspect in the comparable languages are established.

Results and discussion

The lexemes attitude and atteggiamento describe aspects of perception and behavior of individuals. Both words can refer to a state of mind or mood that influences a person’s actions, making them comparable in the context of behavior.

The English lexeme attitude differs in its meaning from the Italian lexeme attitudine . In English, the lexeme attitude manifests a certain set of actions as a way of behavior, its semantic implementation of the concept “relations” is more consistent with the Italian lexeme atteggiamento (with the semantic features “putting into action” and “posing as behavior in a certain role”).

The relation expressed by the Italian lexeme atteggiamento , from the perspective of etymology, is understood as the behavior adopted by a person or community in certain circumstances, respectful behavior towards other people and communities, or even towards facts, doctrines, problems. This is synonymous with the concepts of movements, attitudes, postures (hereinafter our translation. – I. S. ). Cf.: Per atteggiamento, in inglese attitude, si intende, etimologicamente, un comportamento assunto da una persona o da una collettivitа in una determinata circostanza o nei riguardi di altre persone e collettivitа, o anche rispetto a fatti, dottrine, problemi ed и sinonimo di movenza, piglio, portamento o postura (Treccani).

Diachronic analysis showed that initially the meaning of these lexemes is associated with the lexeme act ( atto ). In Latin, actus was the past participle of àgere , literally “to push, to carry something forward” (VI), and therefore to act, to do. Thus, an act / deed is an action as a deed done : L’atto, dunque, è azione in quanto cosa fatta (VI).

Subsequently, this meaning, with the leading sign of effectiveness and subsequent direction, was developed in new unities, among which, undoubtedly, the most noteworthy are atteggiare and atteggiamento . In particular, in addition to the leading semantic feature “putting into action,” the semantic feature “posing as behavior in a certain role” is formed, which is represented in the semantics of the verb atteggiare and implies the conscious desire of the subject to behave this way.

Posing in this case is understood broadly – as the performance of certain roles. For example, when a person is not just surprised, but makes a surprised face; or when he wants to pretend to be someone he is really not, while aware that he is playing a certain role. Cf.: Mentre attuare è piatto nella desinenza e nel senso – mero “mettere in atto” –, atteggiare implica una volontà consapevole di disporre le cose in un certo modo: se atteggio il mio viso a stupore non sono semplicemente stupito, voglio mostrare di esserlo; e se mi atteggio a vittima, so di recitare una parte (VI). However, the relation is not necessarily manifested by posture or gesture. It can be an action from which a relation is derived (from the Latin aptus), as well as the past participle of the verb àpere, which meant “to attach, bind, connect,” later acquired a positive connotation “well tied, well connected,” and further, suitable, adequate, appropriate. Later, with the addition of the prefix ad-, L’attitudine acquired the meaning of “inclination”, which also remained in the English unit aptitude, equivalent to attitudine in the Italian language. It is this semantic sign of connection that is a key to the concept of RELATIONS in the behavioral aspect. Thus, in the linguistic cognitive aspect, the meaning of the lexeme attitudine contains the meaning of potentiality (the appropriate connection aptus) of an action, the possibility of its transformation into a real behavioral action (action/posture, gesture actus). The meaning of the lexeme atteggiamento contains the meaning of actus from àgere (“to push/carry something forward” in the meaning of “to act, to do”). Thus, when verbalizing the category of RELATIONS in the behavioral aspect, the meaning of behavior expressed in action is updated in the lexeme atteggiamento, while the meaning of “ability” is manifested in the lexeme attitudine, as the original, passive potential of a future behavioral action. The Italian lexeme atteggiamento originates from the Latin word actus and is related to behavior manifested in certain circumstances. In the context of etymology, its primary meaning is associated with pushing (àgere) and action. The semantic perspective includes a breadth of aspects such as awareness of role and posturing, indicating how a person behaves in a social situation.

In English, the lexeme attitude is borrowed from French. Cf.: French, from Italian attitudine, literally, aptitude, from Late Latin aptitudin-, aptitudo fitness (MWD). The concept of relations in the behavioral aspect in the lexeme attitude correlates with the meaning of the Italian lexeme attitudine (atto – posture, human posture; figures depicted in various forms). Cf.: “posture or position of a figure in a statue or painting,” via French attitude (17 c.), from Italian attitudine “disposition, posture,” also “aptness, promptitude,” from Late Latin aptitudinem (nominative aptitudo; see aptitude, which is its doublet) (OED). According to English dictionaries, the lexeme attitude was originally used as a technical term in art. Cf.: Originally 17 c. a technical term in art; later generalized to “a posture of the body supposed to imply some mental state” (1725) (OED). Later, attitude was generalized to mean “a body posture presumably implying some kind of mental state expressed in behavior.” Cf.: The sense of “a settled behavior reflecting feeling or opinion” is from 1837. The meaning “habitual mode of regarding” is short for attitude of mind (1757) (OED). Note that the dictionary definitions of the lexeme attitude reveal a narrowing of its meaning in English slang, which offers an understanding of it as “antagonistic and uncooperative.” Cf.: Connotations of “antagonistic and uncooperative” developed by 1962 in slang (OED).

The lexeme attitude in modern English dictionaries contains the following components in its interpretation: behavior, feelings, and opinion. Cf.: Attitude – a feeling or opinion about something or someone, or a way of behaving that is caused by this (CDO). Additionally, the expression of thoughts and feelings can be reflected in behavior. Cf.: Your attitude to something is the way that you think and feel about it, especially when this is evident in the way you behave (Collins).

The definition reveals a tendency to define the lexeme with an emphasis on internal emotions in relation to someone/something. The behavioral component is present but does not occupy a dominant position. Prepositions of direction (to/ toward) and the verb show emphasize the connection between the manifestation of emotions and thoughts and the need to demonstrate them in behavior. Cf.: Attitude (to/toward somebody/ something) refers to the way that you think and feel about someone or something; the way that you behave toward someone or something that shows how you think and feel (OLD).

In modern English, the lexeme attitude manifests the category of RELATIONS in a behavioral sense as an example to follow or purposeful imitation. Cf.: Attitude is generally studied for the sake of appearing graceful; hence it is sometimes affected, with the practice of it being called attitudinizing. An attitude is often adopted intentionally for the purpose of imitation or exemplification; generally, attitude is more artistic than posture (OED).

The English word attitude is borrowed from French and has roots in the Italian attitudine and the Latin aptitudo. Initially, the term was used in the context of art as body posture, and later it came to denote a broader concept, including mental state and behavioral habits. Over time, its meaning narrowed, developing a focus on emotions and internal perception.

Comparative diachronic analysis revealed the closest historically determined semantic connections between the analyzed lexemes and, at the same time, some differences in their meanings. It follows that we can effectively use information stored in our memory to form relations. Linguistic codification of the category of memory is the total projection of a given extra-linguistic object as a result of its linguistic acquisition. It integrates the characteristic features of representation, nomination, and discursive manifestation of the corresponding phenomenon, and is constituted by universal and varying (in terms of synchrony), as well as constant (in terms of diachrony) elements [Shamne, Rebrina, 2013, p. 105].

According to the most common definition, a relation is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a specific entity with some degree of favor or disapproval [Eagly, Chaiken, 1993]. The reactions caused by these relations are reflected in the choice of actions and, therefore, determine the behavior of the subject. Thus, a relation is actually a complex concept associated with various factors. The category of RELATIONS can be considered a way of analyzing behavior in the axiological aspect, since the semantics of the lexemes under consideration also contain a pragmatic component in the form of evaluative semes.

Thus, in the following example, internal unobservable reactions (mental attitude – the lexeme atteggiamento ) involve the formation of a choice of still potential actions in the form of self-esteem, understood as an attitude towards oneself, which may be realized in one’s own behavior in the future. Cf.:

• (1)    Cosa ci dà un atteggiamento mentale armonioso? (What is the result of a harmonious mental attitude?) (Glosbe).

Another example shows a positive assessment in relation to the behavioral actions of an outsider (also, the lexeme atteggiamento ). Cf.:

• (2)    Nei confronti della Primavera di Praga il suo atteggiamento fu molto fermo (His actions during the Prague Spring were very significant) (Glosbe).

Or, for example, the analysis of behavior in the form of an assessment of the “correct attitude,” normative behavioral actions (lexeme attitude). Cf.:

• (3)    Variables that structure the operation of discretion include whether the offender shows “the right attitude ” (BNC).

The following example shows the analysis of behavioral prediction in the form of an assessment based on the possible influence of past behavioral actions of a group of people on potential behavioral actions (the lexemes aptitude and attitude ). Cf.:

• (4)    They show a rare aptitude for the tragic attitude (Glosbe).

Illustration of the analysis of behavior in relations verbalized in opinion ( atteggiamento ) in the form of an assessment of a person’s potential behavioral actions as a collective image of all humanity. Cf.:

• (5)    La più grande scoperta di sempre è il fatto che una persona può cambiare il proprio futuro semplicemente cambiando il proprio atteggiamento (The greatest discovery of all time is that a person can change their future simply by changing their mindset) (Glosbe).

In the axiological aspect, we trace the evolution of the pragmatic component of evaluative semes in lexemes that verbalize the category of RELATIONS in the behavioral aspect, from assessing one’s own attitude and attitude towards others to assessing the intended behavioral actions in building empathic and effective relations. Thus, in the following example, the lexeme attitude expresses a set of still undefined behavioral actions with an expected positive assessment in the future. Cf.:

• (6)    We appreciate your attitude and guarantee that we will apply every effort to provide mutually beneficial cooperation (Glosbe).

Next, we provide an example of a negative assessment of future potential behavior with the lexeme attitude . Cf.:

• (7)    I rischi insiti in questo tipo di “attitude” sono evidenti (The dangers inherent in such “attitudes” are obvious) (Glosbe).

The concept of relations in the ordinary worldview finds practical application in varying, integrating, and expanding its meaning in various areas relating to the processes of behavioral adaptation in the social environment, for example, when meeting new people. Cf.:

• (8)    Rende il linguaggio e l’atteggiamento più umani (This will make your speech and manners more humane) (Glosbe).

The following two examples can be collectively described as “situation management.” They illustrate the assessment processes in predicting and adapting the potential behavior of groups of people in society. Cf.:

• (9)    This is an example of what Cain (1973) calls the “instructional attitude ,” which senior constables adopt in relation to probationers, passing on not just (Glosbe);

• (10)    Campaigns should target the relevant aspects of attitudes that determine a specific type of behavior (Glosbe).

The following example (identifying political trends) illustrates the process of assessment in predicting and adapting the potential behavior of groups of people on a large scale (the lexeme atteggiamento reflects public opinion). Cf.:

• (11)    Identificando uno dei motivi di questo mutato atteggiamento , il giornale dice: “Questo cambiamento di immagine è la diretta conseguenza di quella che forse è stata la più lunga e costosa campagna pubblicitaria sponsorizzata dal governo che la storia del Canada ricordi” (Pointing to one of the reasons for the change in public opinion, the newspaper writes: “This change in image is a direct consequence of what may be the most expensive and time-consuming government advertising campaign in Canadian history”) (Glosbe).

The next example demonstrates the expanding the meanings of atteggia mento from the formation and planning of one’s own attitudes in the form of abilities and dispositions ( attitudine) to future behavior and real behavioral actions in society. Cf.:

• (12)    Le conseguenze della simbiosi nell’ età adulta sono problem di tristezza, legati al sentirsi mancanti di una parte vitale, e delle modalità di comportamento, degli atteggia menti mentali, dell’ attitudine a superarli (The consequences of symbiosis in adulthood are problems of sadness, related to feeling lacking a vital part, and the modes of behavior, mental attitudes, and the disposition to overcome them) (PAISÀ).

Thus, the choice of these lexemes for comparative analysis is justified both in terms of semantic meanings and considering linguocultural and linguocognitive aspects. This allows for a deeper understanding of the behavioral attitudes reflected in the languages and reveals both common and unique features inherent in the represented linguistic cultures. Both lexemes ( atteggiamento and attitude ) in each language represent a mental state or perception that describes a person’s approach to a specific situation or circumstance. Both words emphasize the influence of these states on behavior. Examples (1) and (6) highlight the importance of mental state for quality interaction. All examples illustrate how atteggiamento and attitude can shape behavior or reaction. The Italian sentence emphasizes determination (example (2)), while example (3) the right attitude also speaks to the desired behavior when interacting with others.

The behavioral aspect may vary depending on cultural norms and values. The analysis allows for the identification of how Italian and English cultures influence the meanings and usage of these lexemes. In Italian, atteggiamento often carries a more emotional and personal connotation, as seen in example (5) cambiando il proprio atteggiamento . This emphasizes a personal approach to change, implying greater involvement of feelings and self-perception. Example (8) Rende il linguaggio e l’atteggiamento più umani points to the cultural significance of a more humane approach in the Italian context. In English, for instance, example (7) the risks insiti in this type of ‘attitude’ encompasses more formal and critical aspects of perceiving relations, implying the objectification of approaches.

The overall conclusion from the conducted analysis indicates that the lexemes atteggiamento and attitude serve similar functions in describing relations and behavior; however, cultural and emotional contexts allow for different emphases. Italian words are more closely associated with personal identity and are perceived as less formal, while English terms are more frequently used in decisions related to professional and social norms. These differences highlight the importance of context in interpreting meanings and indicate the necessity of considering their linguocultural characteristics.

Conclusion

This study highlights the importance of understanding linguistic expressions of behavior within their cultural contexts, illustrating how language shapes our perceptions of human interaction and relations. A thorough investigation of the lexical-semantic sphere surrounding the philosophical category of RELATIONS within a behavioral context aims to illustrate how the lexemes atteggiamento and attitude encapsulate the nuances of human behavior and perception in their respective languages, revealing both similarities and differences shaped by cultural influences.

The comparative analysis of atteggiamento and attitude within the framework of the category of RELATIONS reveals significant insights into how these lexemes function in the comparative languages. Both words encapsulate mental and emotional states that influence behavior in culturally specific ways. This distinction highlights how each lexeme captures different dimensions of human interaction and response, with atteggiamento suggesting a more engaged and expressive approach, while attitude implies a more reflective and evaluative stance. The Italian lexeme tends to emphasize emotional engagement and personal relations, while the English lexeme focuses on evaluative and analytical aspects. The Italian atteggiamento is more closely associated with the awareness of external actions and active participation in social contexts. In contrast, the English attitude tends to emphasize internal feelings that may manifest in behavior. Evolution and adaptation of meanings pertains to the dynamic nature of these lexemes as they evolve over time and adapt to cultural contexts. Behavioral components refer to the evaluative aspects inherent in both lexemes, which reflect a person’s stance towards specific situations or actions. While both atteggiamento and attitude conveys an evaluative judgment (positive or negative), they differ in their focus. The similarities in their objectification of behavior are contrasted by differences in emotional emphasis and action orientation. This evolution underscores the impact of cultural factors on the interpretation and usage of atteggiamento and attitude , reflecting broader societal values and norms.

Thus, under the influence of linguocultural factors on the functional-and-semantic distribution of lexemes with common historical semes that nominate the category of RELATIONS, notable evolutionary trends are revealed, particularly concerning the aspect of manifestation as behavior in the compared languages. In this context, the perception of relations and behavior in both languages is based on deep mental models that determine how speakers interpret and express their relations toward the surrounding world.