The metal ages and medieval period. Рубрика в журнале - Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia
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The microstructure of 9th–15th century artifacts made of crucible steel, found at sites in Central and Northwest Asia, is described. Metallographic study of items from settlements and burials with precise data on chronology, location, and accompanying artifacts is important for reconstructing the history of bulat steel and the technology of melting and processing ultra-high-carbon crucible steel. The study of the macro- and microstructure, and the chemical analysis of such items indicate an extremely high content of carbon—1.7–2.1 %. The characteristic feature of their microstructure is a dark matrix with white inclusions of ledeburite and iron carbides. The combination of structural components is reflected in the patterned structure of the metal. These properties suggest that such metal is identical to bulat steel. Findings of macrostructural analysis extend our knowledge of the varieties of this metal, its structural features, phase composition of separate groups of ultra-high-carbon crucible steel, smelting technology, plastic and thermal treatment, and physical properties.
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Middle and Late Bronze Age house-building in the steppe and forest-steppe Altai
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Miniature anthropomorphic sculptures from Ust-Voikary: chronology, context, semantics
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We publish a sample of anthropomorphic sculptures unearthed in 2012–2016 at the Ust-Voikary fortified settlement in the circumpolar zone of Western Siberia. This is one of the permafrost sites, where artifacts made of organic materials are well preserved. The vast majority of the sculptures are made of wood, two of sheet metal, and one from a limonite concretion. Four main categories are identified: busts, heads, relatively full anthropomorphic figurines, and masks on sticks. Most of the sculptures follow the tradition of Ob-Ugric art, while a few can be attributed to Samoyedic art. Some figurines have additional elements such as rows of notches and diamond-shaped signs. According to ethnographic data, these signs endowed the sculptures with a sacral status. The finds have a clear archaeological, architectural, and dendrochronological context. Most were discovered in cultural layers dating to the early 1500s to early and mid-1700s. The artistic style is analyzed, and parallels are cited. The sculptures are compared with 18th to early 20th century ethnographic data. The connection of most figurines with dwellings, their small size and style show that they all belong to the ritual wooden anthropomorphic sculpture and were attributes of domestic sanctuaries. They fall into two main categories: family patron spirits and ittarma—temporary abodes of souls of the dead.
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Mobility of the Suzdal Opolye settlers in 900-1150 AD
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The formation of Northeastern Rus in the 10th–11th centuries is usually regarded as a process triggered by intense multicultural interaction and the infl ux of new settlers from the Dnieper region, Northwestern Rus, and Scandinavia to the Volga-Oka watershed. The dense rural settlement network that existed in 1000–1300, which was recently documented in central Northeastern Rus, and the reconstructed medieval landscapes unambiguously suggest that the prosperity and stability of villages was an important factor in the rise of the region. The level of mobility of the population in Northeastern Rus in the 10th–12th centuries is highly relevant to this issue. This parameter can be assessed using paleodietary data on the isotopic composition of strontium in the dental enamel and bone collagen of individuals buried at medieval cemeteries. The analysis of such samples from a large, rural agglomeration dating to the 10th–early 13th centuries, Shekshovo-9, suggests that this was a culturally diverse and wealthy population, which was part of a trade network. The migration level in this agglomeration was estimated by the results of the mass spectrometric analysis of samples from 24 humans and three animals from the Shekshovo-2 and -9 cemeteries. The reconstructions indicate a high proportion of locals as compared to similar sites in Eastern Europe. No direct relationship was found between the presence of artifacts introduced from other cultures and the isotopic profi le of fi rst-generation immigrants. The resulting pattern, indicating a high proportion of native individuals, has no parallels among the 10th–11th century sites in Eastern and Northern Europe represented by comparable data on strontium isotopes.
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Modeling the deformation of bone points: archaeological and experimental data
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Mongol warriors of the Jochi ulus at the Karasuyr cemetery, Ulytau, Central Kazakhstan
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This article presents the results of a comprehensive study of two unusual large wooden statues with anthropomorphic faces. They were excavated from the Ust-Voikary stratified site, in the southwestern Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug. The site dwellers were native Siberians (Ugro-Samoyeds), who lived there from the Middle Ages to the recent centuries. This is one of the few sites in the region with frozen habitation deposits. The statues are unique in terms of attribution, size, preservation, and integrity of archaeological context. They were part of dwellings, being situated in the foundations of the walls near the entrance. Their faces are modeled in bas-relief. Iconographically, they conform to the Ob Ugrian sculptural tradition. The analysis of the architectural context of the location of the statues and certain details suggests a secondary use. Initially, they might have belonged to the frame supporting the roof. The statues are made of Siberian larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.). The dendrochronological analysis has allowed us to estimate the date when the trees were felled—the late 17th century. A retrospective analysis of data on the ritual art of the northern Khanty and Mansi suggests an interpretation of the Voikary statues in comparing them with wooden sculptures representing menkvs—forest spirits. Thus, their ritual role was mostly to protect the home.
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New data on armed conflicts in the Altai during the Rouran period: the Choburak I cemetery
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This study focuses on a burial at a Rouran period cemetery, Choburak I, in the Chemalsky District, Republic of Altai, where altogether twelve burials were excavated by an expedition from the Altai State University. In kurgan 34a, a burial of a 30–35-year-old male with a horse was excavated. The burial goods included weapons, items of horse harness, utensils and domestic artifacts. The head of the buried individual had been replaced by the cranium of a ram, and certain postcranial bones revealed multiple injuries inflicted by a cutting weapon. The burial is attributed to the Dàlián tradition, associated with the Bulan-Koba culture. The analysis of the burial goods and a radiocarbon estimate suggest that the burial dates to the middle or second half of the 4th century AD. Injuries testify to armed conflicts, in which males had taken part, and support the belief that violence in the Altai was high during the Rouran period. The case is interpreted as one of decapitation. Given the parallels in adjacent regions, is can be hypothesized that the head of a ram had been used as a basis for a mask. Apparently, this peculiar custom was associated with the ritual in which the missing bodily part was replaced in specific cases of violent death.
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New data on iron-smelting sites in the Kuektanar and Turgun valleys, Southeastern Altai
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New findings relating to bone processing from Chernyatino-2, Primorye
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The article provides a detailed account of faunal materials from the Chernyatino-2 settlement in Russian Primorye. For the first time, a large series of bone blanks from a Bohai (698–926 AD) site is described, enabling us to reconstruct bone-processing techniques and types of tools used, expanding our knowledge of bone-working craft of that region. A detailed classification of bone and antler artifacts of domestic manufacture is presented. Certain artifacts are quite unusual. There are items relating to winter movement and hitherto unknown musical instruments, extending our knowledge of medieval Far Eastern musical culture. Also, we detail the species composition and proportion of domestic and wild animals. Predominant families and genera of fish are listed. The findings are discussed with reference to the role of environment in medieval subsistence strategy.
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Newly discovered bronze artifacts of the Scythian period from Archekas mountain, Kuznetsk Alatau
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This study proposes a novel methodological approach to reconstructing the boundaries and structure of medieval settlements without relief features. In recent centuries, the areas of most sites were used for plowing, destroying their relief features. Erosion eventually redistributed the soil of the destroyed occupation layers. Therefore, not only the area of a site must be studied, but the adjoining areas as well. Tendencies in the distribution of the transported occupation layer mirror the thickness of the original culture-bearing deposits. Such estimates can be obtained by collating archaeological and science-based data. First, multispectral aerial photographs are subjected to statistical analysis. The results are then used to subdivide the settlement territory into smaller areas differing in vegetation density. Comparison with the results of geophysical, soil, and archaeological studies allows us to interpret those areas, to assess the state of preservation of the occupation layer (superficially disrupted, replaced, or transported). Previous multidisciplinary studies at the Kushman cluster of sites (9th–13th centuries AD) revealed substantial differences from the traditional classification (fortified settlement and group of unfortified rural settlements). Two sites can be defined as fortified settlements (Uchkakar and Kushmanskoye III), whereas Kushmanskoye II is an economic development area. The use of statistical analysis of multispectral imaging enabled us not only to confirm the previously proposed reconstruction, but also to substantiate the hypothesis about the initial boundaries and structure of the settlements.
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Offerings of Hunnic-type artifacts in stone enclosures at Altynkazgan, the Eastern Caspian region
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